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Kujiua

Hariri viungo
Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru
Kujiua
Mwainisho na taarifa za nje
Kundi MaalumuPsychiatry, elimunafsia Edit this on Wikidata
ICD-10X60.–X84.
ICD-9E950
MedlinePlus001554
eMedicinearticle/288598
MeSHF01.145.126.980.875

Kujiua (kwa Kiingereza "suicide" kutoka neno la Kilatini suicidium, lililotokana na sui caedere, "kujiua") ni kitendo cha mtu kujisababishia kifo kwa makusudi ama kwa kufanya kitu kinachoharibu uhai wake au kwa kuacha yale yanayohitajika kuuendeleza kama kula au kunywa.

Kuna sababu mbalimbali kwa nini watu wanajiua, kama vile

Mara nyingi, watu hujiua kufuatia hali ya kukata tamaa iliyosababishwa na tatizo la kiakili kama vile fadhaiko, maradhi ya hisia mseto, skizofrenia, ulevi au matumizi ya dawa za kulevya.[2]

Vipengele vya dhiki kama vile matatizo ya kifedha au matatizo katika mahusiano ya kijamii huchangia sana.

Juhudi za kuzuia kujiua hujumuisha kupunguza uwezekano wa kufikia bunduki, kutibu magonjwa ya akili, kuzuia matumizi mabaya ya dawa na kuboresha hali ya uchumi.

Mbinu za kujiua ni nyingi na upendeleo hutegemea mazingira na utamaduni. [3]. Inayotumika zaidi hutofautiana katika nchi mbalimbali na huhusishwa kwa kiasi na mbinu zinazopatikana. Mara nyingi hujumuisha: kujinyonga, kunywa sumu na kutumia bunduki.

Kwa jumla wanaume hutumia zaidi mbinu kali kama silaha au kujinyonga, wanawake njia ambazo ni pole zaidi kama kunywa sumu au kujizamisha kwenye maji.

Shirika la Afya Duniani linakadiria kwamba duniani kote kila baada ya sekunde 39 mtu mmoja anajiua, maana yake takriban watu 800,000 hadi milioni 1 hujiua kila mwaka.

Kwa hiyo tendo la kujiua ni kati ya sababu muhimu za kifo cha watu, ni kisababishi kikuu cha 10 cha vifo vyote ulimwenguni.[2][4] Idadi ya wanaume wanaojiua kwa jumla inazidi mara nne ile ya wanawake. Wazee hujiua kushinda vijana. [5][6]

Pamoja na wale wanaofaulu, kila mwaka kuna majaribio kati ya milioni 10 hadi 20[7]. Majaribio hayo mara nyingi huwa ya watoto na wanawake.

Waganga wa kisasa huona kujiua kama tatizo la afya ya nafsi; mara nyingi watu wanaojaribu kujiua hawataki kufa bali kuepukana na matatizo na kama wangeona njia ya kuachana na tatizo wasingejiua. Hivyo majaribio ya kujiua inaweza kuwa ya kuwaonyesha watu wa mazingira ya kwamba kuna tatizo zito na kuomba msaada.

Watu wanaorudia mara nyingi majaribio ya kujiua wanafaulu hatimaye kama hali yao haibadiliki.

Katika mafundisho ya dini nyingi tendo la kujiua linatazamwa kama dhambi au kosa.

Dini za Kiibrahimu zinachukulia kujiua kuwa dhambi kwa sababu ya imani juu ya utakatifu wa uhai, heshima na thamani ya maisha.

Katika Ulaya hadi karne ya 19 watu waliojiua hawakuzikwa makaburini pamoja na watu wengine lakini kando. Nchi mbalimbali zilikuwa na sheria dhidi ya wale waliojiua na jaribio lilitazamwa kama kosa la jinai.

Ingawa kosa la kujiua au kujaribu kujiua lilichangia adhabu ya kisheria hapo awali katika mataifa ya magharibi, kwa sasa haliadhibiwi. Kosa hili limesalia kuwa hatia katika mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu.

Kuna pia jamii ambako hatua ile inaheshimiwa kama azimio la kila mtu.

Katika utamaduni wa enzi za samurai nchini Japani kujiua kulitazamwa kama nafasi ya mkabaila kujirudishia heshima yake kama ameshindwa au kuonekana na kosa kubwa. Hivyo seppuku iliheshimiwa kama mbinu ya kulipia kosa la kushindwa au njia ya utetezi.

Katika utamaduni wa Uhindi mjane alisifiwa kama alijiua baada ya kifo cha mume wake hasa kwa kujichoma pamoja na maiti ya marehemu. Sati katika mazishi ya Kihindi, ambayo sasa imeharamishwa, ilimhitaji mjane kujitoa kafara kwa kujichoma katika kimbwi cha mazishi ya mumewe, kwa hiari au kwa kushinikizwa na familia na jamii.[8]

Katika karne ya 20 na 21, kujiua kwa mbinu ya kujitoa kafara kumetumika kama mbinu ya utetezi, na kamikaze na kujiua kwa bomu kama harakati za kijeshi au kigaidi.[9]

Hivyo katika vita vilivyopita askari walisifiwa kama waliamua kujiua kwa kutumia miili yao kama silaha dhidi ya adui. Mfano mashuhuri ni marubani wa kamikaze wa Japani waliojirusha pamoja na ndege zao dhidi ya meli za Marekani wakati wa vita kuu ya pili ya dunia.

Wanamgambo wa Tamil Tiger nchini Sri Lanka walishambulia jeshi la serikali mara nyingi kwa mabomu hai yaani askari waliobeba bomu na kujilipua karibu na maadui.

Mbinu hiyohiyo inatumiwa pia katika dunia ya Kiislamu na wanamgambo na magaidi mbalimbali, hasa katika nchi kama Palestina, Irak au Afghanistan. Ilitumiwa pia na magaidi kutoka Checheniya dhidi ya Warusi.

Fasili

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Kujiua ni kitendo cha "kujitoa uhai".[10]

Kujaribu kujiua ni kitendo cha kujidhuru kwa lengo la kujiangamiza, bila kufanikiwa kujiua.[11]

Usaidizi wa kujiua ni pale mtu anapomsaidia mwingine kujiua kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja; kupitia ushauri au mbinu za kujiua.[12] Hii ni tofauti na eutenasia ambapo mtu mwingine huhusika zaidi katika kusababisha kifo cha mwingine.[12]

Mawazo ya kujiua ni kuwaza jinsi ya kujiangamiza.[11]

Vipengele vya hatari

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Hali zinazochangia kujiua katika majimbo 16 ya Marekani mwaka wa 2008.[13]

Vipengele vinavyoathiri hatari ya kujiua hujumuisha ugonjwa wa akili, matumizi mabaya ya dawa, hali ya kisaikolojia, kiutamaduni, familia na vitengo vya kijamii na jenetikia.[14] Ugonjwa wa akili na matumizi mabaya ya dawa mara nyingi hutokea kwa pamoja.[15] Vipengele vingine vya hatari ni pamoja na jaribio la kujiua la hapo awali,[16] uwepo wa mbinu za kujiua, historia ya kujiua katika familia au uwepo wa jeraha kuu la ubongo.[17] Kwa mfano, viwango vya kujiua vimetambulika kuwa vya juu katika familia zilizo na bunduki kuliko zisizo nazo.[18] Vipengele vya kijamii na kiuchumi, kama vile ukosefu wa ajira, umaskini, kukosa makazi na ubaguzi vinaweza kusababisha fikira za kutaka kujiua.[19] Takriban 15-40% ya watu huacha ujumbe wa kujiua.[20] Jenetikia huonekana kuhusika kwa kati ya 38% na 55% ya mitindo ya kujiua.[21] Wakongwe wa vita wana hatari zaidi ya kujiua kufuatia viwango vya juu vya magonjwa ya akili na matatizo ya kiafya yanayohusishwa na vita.[22]

Matatizo ya akili

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Matatizo ya akili mara nyingi huwepo wakati wa kujiua, huku kadirio zikiwa kati ya 27%[23] hadi zaidi ya 90%.[16] Katika wagonjwa waliolazwa katika kitengo cha magonjwa ya akili, hatari yao ya kujiua kikamilifu katika maisha yao yote huwa takriban 8.6%[16] Nusu ya watu wote wanaofariki kutokana na kujiua wanaweza kuwa na tatizo kuu la fadhaiko; uwepo wa hali hii au mojawapo ya matatizo ya kihisia, kama vile maradhi ya hisia mseto huongeza hatari ya kujiua kwa mara 20.[24] Hali nyingine zinazochangia kujiua ni pamoja na skizofrenia (14%), matatizo ya nafsi (14%),[25] maradhi ya hisia mseto,[24] na tatizo la dhiki baada ya kiwewe.[16] Takriban 5% ya watu wenye skizofrenia hufa kutokana na kujiua.[26] Matatizo ya kula ni hali nyingine yenye hatari ya juu.[27]

Historia ya jaribio la awali la kujiua ni ishara kuu ya kujiua kikamilifu baadaye.[16] Takriban 20% ya visa vya kujiua hutanguliwa na jaribio la kujiua. 1% ya watu waliojaribu kujiua hufaulu kujiua katika mwaka mmoja[16], na zaidi ya 5% hufaulu kujiua baada ya miaka 10 .[27] Ingawa vitendo vya kujidhuru havichukuliwi kama majaribio ya kujiua, kuwepo kwa mtindo wa kujidhuru huhusishwa na hatari zaidi ya kujiua.[28]

Kwa takriban 80% ya visa vya kujiua kikamilifu, mwathiriwa huwa amemtembelea daktari katika mwaka huo kabla ya kujiua,[29] ikijumuisha 45% ya visa katika mwezi uliotangulia.[30] Takriban 25%-40% ya watu wanaojiua huwa wamepokea huduma ya afya ya kiakili katika mwaka uliotangulia. [23][29]

Matumizi ya vileo

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"Kuendelea kwa Mlevi", 1846 huonyesha jinsi ulevi unavyoweza kupelekea kujiua

Kutumia vileo ni kipengele cha hatari cha pili kikuu kinachopelekea kujiua, baada ya mfadhaiko mkuu na maradhi ya nafsi mseto.[31] Ulevi wa muda mrefu na ulevi wa muda mfupi huhusishwa na kujiua.[15][32] Ikiwa hali hii itaambatana na masikitiko ya kibinafsi, kama vile kufiwa, hatari huongezeka zaidi.[32] Hali kadhalika, kutumia dawa za kulevya huhusishwa na matatizo ya afya ya kiakili.[15]

Watu wengi huwa wameathiriwa na dawa za kutuliza na kuwezesha usingizi (kama vile pombe au benzodiazepines) wakati wa kujiua [33],huku ulevi ukiwepo katika 15%-61% ya visa.[15] Nchi zilizo na viwango vya juu vya ulevi wa pombe na idadi kubwa ya baa pia huwa na viwango vya juu vya kujiua[34]. Uhusiano huu huhusishwa hasa na matumizi ya vinywaji vikali vilivyotoneshwa kuliko pombe kamili.[15] Takriban 2.2-3.4% ya watu waliotibiwa kutokana na ulevi katika wakati fulani maishani mwao hufa kwa kujiua.[34] Walevi wanaojaribu kujiua kwa kawaida huwa wanaume wazee na ambao wamejaribu kujiua hapo awali.[15]Kati ya 3% na 35% ya vifo vya watu wanaotumia heroini hutokana na kujiua (takriban mara 14 zaidi ya wale wasiotumia).[35]

Matumizi mabaya ya kokeini na methamphetamine huhusiana pakubwa na kujiua.[15][36] Katika watumizi wa kokeini, hatari huwa ya juu zaidi katika awamu ya kusitisha.[37] Waliotumia dawa za kuvuta pia huwa katika hatari, na takriban 20% yao hujaribu kujiua wakati fulani, huku zaidi ya 65% wakikusudia kujiua.[15] Hata hivyo, bangi haitambuliki kuongeza hatari ikitumika pekee.[15]

Uvutaji tumbaku huhusishwa na hatari ya kujiua.[38] Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuhusu kuwepo kwa uhusiano huu; hata hivyo, imedhaniwa kuwa watu waliohatarishwa kwa moshi pia huhatarishwa kwa kujiua. Uvutaji husababisha matatizo ya afya yanayomfanya mtu kutaka kujiua. Pia, uvutaji huathiri kemia ya ubongo na kusababisha uwezekano wa kujiua.[38]

Kubahatishia matatizo

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Kubahatishia matatizo huhusishwa na ongezeko la mawazo ya kujiua na majaribio ikilinganishwa na watu wa kawaida. [39] Kati ya 12% na 14% ya wabahatishi wa kipatholojia hujaribu kujiua.[40] Kiwango cha kujiua cha wake zao huwa mara tatu zaidi ya kile cha umma.[40] Vipengele vingine vinavyoongeza hatari kwa wanaobahatishia matatizo hujumuisha ugonjwa wa akili, ulevi wa pombe na dawa.[41]

Hali za kimatibabu

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Kuna uhusiano kati ya uwezekano wa kujiua na matatizo ya afya, ikijumuisha:[27]maumivu ya muda mrefu,[42] jeraha la ubongo lenye kiwewe,[43] saratani,[44] watu wanaofanyiwa hemodialisi, wenye VVU, erithematosasi ya kitaratibu ya lupusi miongini mwa hali zingine.[27] Utambuzi wa saratani huongeza hatari ya kujiua baadaye kwa takriban mara mbili.[44] Ukithiri wa ongezeko la uwezekano wa kujiua ulijikita hata baada ya kurekebishwa kutokana na maradhi ya mfadhaiko na ulevi. Hatari katika watu wenye hali nyingi za kimatibabu huwa juu zaidi. Matatizo ya afya nchini Japan yanaorodheshwa kama sababu kuu ya kujiua.[45]

Matatizo ya usingizi kama vile insomnia[46] na apnea ya usingizi ni vipengele vya hatari vya mfadhaiko na kujiua. Wakati mwingine, masumbufu ya usingizi yanaweza kuwa vipengele vya hatari ya kujiua bila kutegemea mfadhaiko.[47] Hali nyingine za kimatibabu zinaweza kuwepo, huku zikiwa na dalili sawa na matatizo ya kihisia, ikiwa ni pamoja na:hipouthiroidi, Alzheimer, kansa ya ubongo, erithematosasi ya kitaratibu ya lupusi na madhara ya dawa (kama vile viziba beta na steroidi).[16]

Hali za kimawazo na kijamii

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Baadhi ya hali za kimawazo na kijamii huongeza hatari ya kujiua, ikujumuisha: kukosa matumaini, kupoteza furaha katika maisha, fadhaiko na wasiwasi.[24] Uwezo duni wa kusuluhisha matatizo, ukosefu wa uwezo aliokua nao mtu na udhibiti duni wa hisia pia unaweza kuchangia kujiua.[24][48]Katika watu wazima, wazo la kuwa mzigo kwa watu wengine ni kipengele kikuu.[49][49]

Dhiki za awali, kama vile kifo cha jamaa au rafiki, kupoteza kazi au kujitenga na jamii (kama vile kuishi pekee) huongeza hatari.[24] Watu ambao hawajawai kuoa pia wana hatari ya juu zaidi.[16] Kujihusisha na dini kunaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua .[50] Hali hii imehusishwa na msimamo hasi wa dini dhidi ya kujiua, na uhusiano mkuu ulioko katika dini.[50] Waislamu, wakilingashwa na watu wa dini zingine, huwa na kiwango cha chini zaidi cha kujiua.[51]

Baadhi ya watu wanaweza kujiua ili kuepuka ukatili au ubaguzi.[52] Historia ya dhuluma za kimapenzi dhidi ya watoto u[53] na muda aliokaa mtu kwenye utunzaji wa walezi pia huwa vipengele vya hatari.[54] Dhuluma za kimapenzi huaminika kuchangia hadi takriban 20% ya hatari ya kijumla.[21]

Maelezo ya saikolojia ya mageuko kuhusu kujiua ni kwamba kunaweza kuboresha uwezo wa kimalezi. Hii inaweza kutokea iwapo mtu anayejiua hawezi kupata watoto wengine na anaendelea kutumia raslimali za jamii kwa kuendelea kuishi. Pingamizi ni kuwa vifo vya watu waliobaleghe wenye afya mara nyingi haviongezi uwezo wa kimalezi. Utohozi katika mazingira tofauti na aliyozaliwa mtu unaweza kupelekea marekebisho mabaya katika mazingira anayoishi mtu kwa sasa.[48][55]

Umaskini huhusishwa na hatari ya kujiua.[56]Ongezeko la umaskini ukilinganishwa na watu walio karibu huongeza hatari ya kujiua.[57] Zaidi ya wakulima 200,000 nchini India wametekeleza kujiua kuanzia 1997 kwa sababu ya deni.[58] Nchini China, uwezo wa kujiua ni mara tatu zaidi katika maeneo ya mashambani kuliko mijini, kufuatia matatizo ya kifedha katika maeneo hayo.[59]

Vyombo vya habari

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Vyombo vya habari, ikiwa ni pamoja na mtandao, huchangia pakubwa.[14] Jinsi vyombo hivi vinavyowasilisha kujiua inaweza kuwa na athari mbaya, huku habari zilizotiliwa mkazo, kusisitizwa na kurudiwa huku zikisifia matukio ya kujiua zikiwa na athari kuu zaidi.[60] Mbinu moja ya kujiua inapoangaziwa kwa kina, umaarufu wake unaweza kuongezeka kwenye umma.[61]

Kichochezi cha kusambaza hisia za kujiua au uigaji kujiua hujulikana kama athari ya Werther kutokana na mhusika mkuu katika kitabu cha Johann Wolfgang von Goethe The Sorrows of Young Werther aliyejiua.[62]Hatari hii ni kubwa zaidi katika vijana wanaosifia kifo.[63] Inaonekana kuwa, ingawa vyombo vya habari vina ushawishi mkubwa, ushawishi wa vyombo vya burudani ni wa kupotosha. Kinyume cha athari ya Werther ni ile inayoitwa athari ya Papageno, ambapo kuwasilisha habari kuhusu mbinu mwafaka za ukabilianaji kunaweza kupelekea matokeo bora ya kinga. Neno hili linatokana na mhusika katika tamthilia ya [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] iitwayo The Magic Flute. Mhusika huyu alitaka kujiua kwa kuogopa kumtopeza mpenzi wake hadi marafiki zake wakamshawishi asijiue. [62] Hatari ya kujiua inaweza kupungua iwapo vyombo vya habari vitafuatilia miongozo inayofaa ya kuripoti.[60] Inaweza kuwa vigumu kupata uwajibikaji wa wataalamu wa mawasiliano, hasa katika muda mrefu wa usoni.[60]

Kujiua kirazini

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Kujiua kirazini ni kujiua baada ya kufanya uamuzi kwa akili timamu, [64] ingawa baadhi ya watu husema kuwa kujiua hakuwezi kuwa jambo la busara.[64]Kitendo cha kujiua ili kuwanufaisha watu wengine hujulikana kama kujiua kiutu.[65] Mfano wa aina hii ni mzee akijiua ili kuwaachia watoto wake mali nyingi katika jamii.[65] Katika baadhi ya tamaduni za Eskimo, hatua ya kujiua kiutu imeonekana kama kitendo cha heshima, ujasiri au hekima.[66]

Shambulio la kujiua ni kitendo cha kisiasa ambapo mshambulizi huwavamia watu wengine akifahamu kuwa kitendo hicho kitapelekea kifo chake. [67] Baadhi ya watu wanaojiua kwa bomu hufanya hivyo ili kupata umaarufu wa ufiadini.[22] Mashambulizi ya Kamikaze yalitekelezwa kama wito mkuu au wajibu wa kimaadili.[66] Kujiua baada ya mauaji ni kitendo cha uuaji wa binadamu kinachofuatiwa punde na mtu aliyetekeleza mauaji hayo kujiua mwenyewe.[68] Mauaji ya halaiki mara nyingi hutekelezwa chini ya ushawishi wa kijamii ambapo washirika humpa kiongozi mamlaka ya kuwafanyia atakavyo.[69] Mauaji ya watu wengi yanaweza kutekelezwa na hata watu wawili tu, maarufu kama mkataba wa kujiua.[70]

Katika hali za kujaribu kuhalalisha, ambapo kuendelea kuishi kutapelekea mateso, watu wengi hutumia kujiua kama mbinu ya kuepuka. [71] Baadhi ya wafungwa katika kambi za mkusanyiko waliripotiwa kujiua kimakusidi kwa kugusa ua za umeme.[72]

Mbinu

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Uchunguzi vifo kwa kujiua nchini Marekani.[18]

Mbinu maarufu ya kujiua hutofautiana katika nchi mbalimbali. Mbinu inayoongoza katika maeneo tofauti ni pamoja na kunyonga, kunywa sumu na kujiua kwa bunduki.[73] Tofauti hizi zinaaminika kusababishwa na upatikanaji wa mbinu mbalimbali kulingana na kila eneo.[61] Mapitio ya nchi 56 yalionyesha kuwa mbinu ya kujinyonga ilikuwa maarufu zaidi katika idadi kubwa ya nchi hizi, [74] ikihasibia 53% ya visa vya kujiua kwa wanaume na 39% katika wanawake. [75]

Kote ulimwenguni, 30% ya visa vya kujiua hutokana na kunywa sumu. Visa vya kutumia mbinu hii, hata hivyo ni tofauti sana, kutoka 4% bara Uropa hadi zaidi ya 50% katika eneo la Pasifiki. [76] Mbinu hii pia ni maarufu Marekani Kusini kwa sababu ya hali rahisi ya kupatikana kwa sumu za ukulima. [61] Katika nchi nyingi, kuzidisha kipimo cha dawa husababisha takriban 60% ya visa vya kujiua miongoni mwa wanawake na 30% katika wanaume.[77] Idadi kubwa ya vifo hivi hutokea bila mpango, na hutokea katika kipindi kikali cha mashaka.[61] Kiasi cha vifo hutofautiana na mbinu iliyotumika; bunduki: 80-90%, kuzama: 65-80%, kujinyonga: 60-85%, mivuke ya gari: 40-60%, kujirusha: 35-60%, kuchoma makaa: 40-50%, sumu ya kuua wadudu: 6-75%, kuzidisha kiasi cha dawa: 1.5-4%.[61] Mbinu za kujiua zilizojaribiwa zaidi hutofautiana na mbinu kuu zaidi, huku kukiwa na 85% ya majaribio ya kuzidisha kiasi cha dawa katika mataifa yaliyostawi.[27]

Nchini Marekani, 57% ya visa vya kujiua vimehusisha kutumia bunduki, huku mbinu hii ikitumiwa zaidi na wanaume kuliko wanawake. [16] Mbinu iliyofuatia kwa umaarufu ni kujinyonga katika wanaume na kunywa sumu katika wanawake.[16] Mbinu hizi kwa pamoja zilichangia 40% ya visa vya kujiua nchini Marekani. [78] Nchini Uswisi, ambapo takriban kila mtu humiliki bunduki, idadi kubwa zaidi ya visa vya kujiua ni kwa kujinyonga. [79] Visa vya kujiua ni maarufu nchini Hong kong na Singapore huku vikiwa 50% na 80% mtawalia. [61] Nchini Uchina, mbinu kuu zaidi ni kunywa sumu. [80] Nchini Japani, kujitoa matumbo, yaani seppuku au hara-kiri, bado hutokea, [80]ingawa kujinyonga ndiyo njia kuu zaidi. [81]

Pathofisiolojia

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Hakuna pathofisiolojia ya kujiua au mfadhaiko iliyo bayana, unganishi na ya kimsingi. [16] Hata hivyo, kujiua huaminika kutokana na mwingilianao wa vipengele vya kimtindo, kimazingira na kijamii na magonjwa ya akili. [61]

Viwango vya chini vya kipengele cha neurotrofiki zitokanazo na ubongo (KNZU) huhusishwa moja kwa moja na kujiua [82] na pasipo moja kwa moja jinsi vinavyochangia mfadhaiko mkuu, matatizo ya baada ya kiwewe, skizofrenia na matatizo ya ung’ang’anizi shurutishi.[83] Uchunguzi wa Uchunguzi maiti umetambua viwango vya chini vya KNZU katika hipokampasi na koteksi ya mbele kwa watu walio au wasio na hali za ugonjwa wa akili. [84] Serotonini, ambayo ni niurotransmita ya ubongo, huanimika kuwa katika kiwango cha chini katika watu wanaojiua. Hii ni kwa kimsingi wa kupatikana kwa viwango vya juu vya kipokezi cha 5- HT2A vinavyopatikana baada ya kufa. [85] Ushahidi mwingine ni pamoja na viwango vya chini vya asidi ya hidroksindoletisia-5, zao linalopatikana baada ya serotonini kumeng’enywa, katika kiowevu cha uti wa mgongo.[86] Hata hivyo, ushahidi wa moja kwa moja ni mgumu kupata. [85] Epigenetikia, somo la mabadiliko ya udhihirisho wa kijeni katika kuitikia vipengele vya kimazingira visivyobadilisha DNA, pia inaaminika kuchangia katika kubaini hatari ya kujiua.[87]

Kinga

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Kama mpango wa kuzuia visa vya kujiua, picha hii inahamsisha kuhusu simu maalum kwenye Daraja la Golden Gate iliyounganishwa na simu ya dharura ya ushauri.

Kuzuia kujiua ni neno linalotumika kumaanisha juhudi za pamoja za kupunguza matukio ya kujiua kupitia hatua za kuzuia. Kupunguza ufikiaji mbinu fulani za kujiua, kama vile bunduki au sumu, hupunguza hatari hii. [61][88] Hatua nyingine ni pamoja na kupunguza ufikiaji makaa na kuweka vizuizi kwenye madaraja na reli za chini ya ardhi. [61] Matibabu dhidi ya uraibu wa dawa za kulevya na pombe, mfadhaiko na majaribio ya kujiua pia yanaweza kuwa mwafaka. [88] Baadhi ya wataalam wamependekeza ufikiaji pombe kama mkakati wa kuzuia (kama vile kupunguza idadi za baa.) [15] Ingawa simu ya dharura ya ushauri hutumika sana, ushahidi uliopo ni mdogo wa kuunga mkono au kupinga ufanisi wake. [89][90] Katika vijana ambao awali wamekusudia kujiua, matibabu ya kubadilisha mawazo yametambulika kuboresha matokeo. [91] Ukuaji wa uchumi unaweza kupunguza viwango vya visa vya kujiua kupitia uwezo wake wa kupunguza umaskini. [56] Juhudi za kuongeza mahusiano ya kijamii, hasa katika wanaume wazee zinaweza kuwa mwafaka. [92]

Uchunguzi wa kimatibabu

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Takwimu zilizopo hazitoshi kuelezea matokeo ya uchunguzi wa kimatibabu kwa umma na viwango vya hatima vya viwango vya kujiua. [93] Kwa kuwa kuna watu wengi wasio katika hatari ya kujiua wanaopata matokeo chanya kupitia mbinu hii, kuna wasiwasi kuwa uchunguzi unaweza kuongeza kwa kiasi kikubwa utumiaji wa raslimali za huduma ya afya. [94] Hata hivyo, inapendekezwa kuwachunguza watu walio katika hatari kuu ya kujiua. [16] Kuuliza kuhusu uwezo wa kujiua hakuonekani kuongeza hatari hii.[16]

Maradhi ya akili

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Katika watu walio na matatizo ya akili, aina kadhaa za matibabu zinaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua. Watu walio na hisia za kujiua wanaweza kulazwa katika kituo cha utunzaji wa kiakili, kwa hiari au bila hiari yao. [16] Kwa kawaida, vifaa anavyoweza kutumia mtu kujiumiza huondolewa. [27] Baadhi ya madaktari huwaagiza wagonjwa kutia saini mkataba wa kuzuia kujiua ambapo wanaahidi kutojiumiza iwapo wataachiliwa. [16] Hata hivyo, ushahidi hauonyeshi matokeo mengi ya hatua hii. [16] Iwapo mtu yuko katika kiasi kidogo cha hatari, matibabu ya mgonjwa wa nje yanaweza kupangiwa. [27] Kulazwa kwa muda mfupi hospitalini hakujatambulika kuwa na ufanisi zaidi ya utunzaji wa kijamii ili kunufaisha matokeo kwa wale walio na tatizo la nafsi hafifu, ambao huwa na hisia za muda mrefu za kujiua. [95][96]

Kuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha kuwa matibabu ya kisaikolojia, hasa matibabu ya kitabia ya upembuzi, hupunguza uwezo wa kujiua katika vijana baleghe [97] pamoja na wale walio na tatizo la nafsi hafifu.[98] Hata hivyo, ushahidi haujapata upungufu katika visa kamilifu vya kujiua. [97]

Kuna utata kuhusu manufaa ya matibabu ya mfadhaiko, ikilinganishwa na madhara yake. [14] Katika vijana, matibabu mapya zaidi, kama vile KCUS huaminiwa kuongeza hatari ya kujiua kutoka watu 25 hadi 40 kwa kila 1000. [99] Hata hivyo, katika watu wazee,matibabu haya yanawaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua.[16] Lithiamu huaminika kuwa mwafaka katika kupunguza hatari katika watu walio na maradhi ya hisia mseto na maradhi ya mfadhaiko mkuu hadi kufikia viwango sawa na watu wengine wa kawaida. [100][101]

Uenezi

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Vifo kutokana na majeraha ya kujidhuru kwa kila watu 100,000  mwaka wa 2004. [102]
     unknown      <3      3-6      6-9      9-12      12-15      15-18
     18-21      21-24      24-27      27-30      30-33      >33

Takriban 0.5% hadi 1.4% ya watu hufikia kifo kwa kujiua. [4][16] Kote ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2008/2009, kujiua ni kisababishi cha kumi kikuu [2], huku takriban watu 800,000 hadi milioni moja wakifa kila mwaka, ikipelekea kima cha vifo cha watu 11.6 kwa kila 100,00 kwa mwaka. [4] Kima cha vifo kimeongezeka hadi 60% kutoka miaka ya 1960 hadi 2012, [88] huku ongezeko hili likitambulika hasa katika mataifa yanayostawi.[2] Kwa kila kisa cha kujiua, kuna majaribio mengine 10 hadi 14 ya kujiua. [16]

Viwango vya kujiua hutofautiana pakubwa kati ya nchi na wakati. [4] Takwimu kwa asilimia ya vifo mwaka wa 2008 zilikuwa: Afrika 0.5%, Kusini Mashariki mwa Asia 1.9%, Marekani 1.2 na Uropa 1.4%. [4] Viwango kwa kila watu 100,00 vilikuwa: Australia 8.6, Canada 11.1, Uchina 12.7, India 23.2, Uingereza 7.6, Marekani 11.4. [103] Kujiua kumerodheshwa katika nafasi ya 10 kama kisababishi cha kifo kinachoongoza nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2009, ikiwa ni takriban visa 36,000 kila mwaka. [104] Takriban watu 650,000 hupatikana katika idara ya dharura kila mwaka kutokana na majaribio ya kujiua. [16] Nchi za Lithuania, Japani na Hangeria zina viwango vikubwa zaidi vya aina za kujiua. [4] Nchi zilizo na idadi kuu zaidi ya visa vya kujiua ni Uchina na India, zikihasibia zaidi ya nusu yaidadi yote [4] Nchini Uchina, kujiua ni kisababishi cha 5 kikuu cha kifo. [105]

Jinsia

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Suicide rate per 100,000 males (left) and female (right) (data from 1978–2008).

     no data      < 1      1–5      5–5.8

     5.8–8.5      8.5–12      12–19      19–22.5

     22.5–26      26–29.5      29.5–33      33–36.5

     >36.5

Katika mataifa ya magharibi, wanaume hufa mara 3 hadi 4 zaidi kutokana na kujiua kuliko wanawake, ingawa wanawake hujaribu kujiua mara 4 zaidi. [4][16] Hali hii imesababishwa na wanaume kutumia mbinu kali zaidi za kujiua. [106] Tofauti hii inadhihirika zaidi katika watu wa umri wa zaidi ya miaka 65, huku visa vya kujiua kwa wanaume vikiwa zaidi ya vya wanawake kwa hadi mara 10. [106] Uchina kuna mojawapo ya viwango vikuu zaidi vya kujiua kwa wanawake duniani, na ndiyo nchi pekee ambapo viwango vya kujiua kwa wanawake ni zaidi ya wanaume (uwiano wa 0.9). [4][105] Katika Mashariki mwa Mediteranea, viwango vya kujiua ni karibu sawa baina ya wanaume na wanawake. [4] Katika wanawake, viwango vikubwa vya visa vya kujiua vinapatikana Korea Kusini, ikiwa ni watu 22 kwa watu 100,000, huku kukiwa na viwango vya juu Asia ya Kusini Mashariki na Magharibi mwa Pasifiki kwa jumla.[4] Siku hizi linajitokeza pia suala la kujiua kwa wasenge [107]

Umri

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Visa vingi vya kujiua katika nchi nyingi hutokea katika watu wa umri wa makamo[108] au wazee.[61] Hata hivyo, idadi kamili ya visa vya kujiua ni vingi katika watu wa umri wa kati ya miaka 15 na 29, kwa sababu ya idadi ya watu iliyopo katika kikundi hiki.[4] Nchini Merikani, visa hivi hutokea kwa wingi katika kizungu, hasa wa umri wa zaidi ya miaka 80, ingawa watu wa umri wa chini hujaribu kujiua mara nyingi.[16] Kujiua ni kisababishi cha pili kikuu cha vifo katika umri wa baleghe[14] na katika wanaume wachanga ni cha pili baada ya vifo vya kiajali. [108] Katika mataifa yaliyostawi, visa hivi ni visababishi vya 30% ya vifo vya wanaume wachanga.[108] Katika mataifa yanayostawi, viwango vya visa hivi ni sawa, ingawa kwa ujumla huchangia idadi ndogo ya vifo vya kijumla kufuatia kiwango cha juu cha vifo kutokana na kiwewe.[108] Kinyume na sehemu zingine, vifo kufuatia kujiua katika Kusini Mashariki mwa Asia hutokea zaidi katika wanawake wachanga kuliko waliokomaa.[4]

Historia

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Kujiua kwa Decebalus, kutoka katika Safu ya Trajan.

Katika Atheni ya Kale, mtu aliyejiua bila idhini ya serikali alinyimwa haki ya kuzikwa kwa njia ya kawaida. Mtu huyu alizikwa peke yake, mpakani mwa jiji, bila kiashirio chochote cha kaburi lake.[109] Katika Ugiriki ya Kale na Roma ya Kale, njia ya kujiua ilikubaliwa kama njia ya kuonyesha kushindwa vitani [110]. Ingawa kujiua kulikubalika mwanzoni katika Roma ya kale, baadaye kuliharamishwa kama kosa dhidi ya serikali kwa sababu ya gharama za kiuchumi.[111] Amri ya uhalifu iliyotolewa na Louis XIV wa Ufaransa mwaka wa 1670 ilitoa adhabu kali zaidi: maiti ya mtu aliyejiua ilibururwa mitaani huku kichwa kikielekezwa chini, kisha kuninginishwa au kutupwa kenye biwi la takataka. Vile vile, mali yote ya mshukiwa ilichukuliwa.[112][113]. Katika historia ya Ukristo, watu waliojaribu kujiua walikuwa wakitengwa, huku waliokufa kufuatia kujiua wakizikwa nje ya eneo takatifu la makaburi.[114] Katika miaka ya mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 nchini Uingereza, jaribio la kujiua lilifananishwa na jaribio la kuua na adhabu yake ilikuwa kunyongwa.[114] Katika karne ya 19 barani Uropa, mtazamo wa kujiua ulibadilishwa kutoka mtazamo kuwa kulisababishwa na dhambi, hadi kuwa kulisababiswa na wazimu.[113].

Jamii na Utamaduni

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Sheria

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A tantō Kisu kilichotayarishwia seppuku.

Katika mataifa mengi ya Ulaya, kujiua hakuchukuliwi tena kama hatia,[115] ingawa mtazamo huo ulikuwepo katika mataifa mengi ya Uropa kuanzia Enzi za Kati hadi angalau miaka ya 1800.[116] Mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu huchukulia bado kujiua kama hatia.[51]

Nchini Australia, kujiua si hatia.[117] Hata hivyo, ni hatia kumshauri, kumchochea, au kumsadia na kumshawishi mtu kujaribu kujiua. Sheria inamruhusu kikamilifu mtu yeyote kutumia "kiwango chochote cha nguvu kama itakavyohitajika" ili kumzuia mwingine asijiue.[118] Milki ya Kaskazini mwa Australia iliruhusu, kwa muda mfupi kutoka 1996 hadi 1997, kifo halali cha kusaidiwa na daktari.[119]

Barani Uropa, hakuna taifa lolote linalochukulia kitendo au jaribio la kujiua kama hatia kwa sasa.[114] Uingereza na Wales ziliondoa sheria iliyoharamisha kujiua kupitia Sheria ya kijiua ya 1961, nayo Jamhuri ya Ayalandi ikifuatia mwaka wa 1993. [114] Neno "kutenda" lilitumika kurejelea uharamu wa kujiua. Hata hivyo, mashirika mengi yamekoma kulitumia kwa sababu ya mtazamo mbaya ya neno hili.[120][121]

Nchini India, kujiua ni hatia, na jamii ya mwathiriwa inaweza kushtakiwa.[122] Nchini Ujerumani, eutenasia ni haramu na mtu anayeshuhudia mwingine akijiua anaweza kuhukumiwa kwa kutotoa usaidizi wakati wa dharura.[123] Uswisi hivi majuzi imepiga hatua katika kuruhusu usaidizi wa kujiua kwa watu walio na ugonjwa wa muda mrefu wa akili. Mahakama kuu ya Lausanne, katika hukumu moja mwaka wa 2006, ilimpa mtu ambaye hakutajwa jina, mwenye tatizo la kiakili la muda mrefu idhini ya kujiua.[124]

Nchini Merikani, kujiua si hatia, ingawa watu wanaojaribu kujiua wanaweza kuadhibiwa.[114] Kujiua kwa kusaidiwa na daktari ni halali katika jimbo la Oregon[125] na Washington.[126]

Dini

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Mjane Mhindu akijichoma pamoja na maiti ya mumewe, miaka ya 1820.

Katika madhehebu mengi ya Ukristo kujiua huchukuliwa kama dhambi, kwa msingi wa maandishi ya wanateolojia wenye ushawishi mkuu kama vile Agostino wa Hippo na Thomas Aquinas. Hata hivyo, kujiua hakukuchuliwa kama dhambi katika kanuni za Justiniani za Milki ya Bizanti, kwa mfano.[127][128]

Katika Kanisa Katoliki, suala la kujiua liko kwenye msingi wa amri "Usiue" (iliyoidhinishwa na Yesu katika Agano Jipya; taz. Math 19:18), pamoja na dhana kuwa uhai ni zawadi kutoka kwa Mungu, hivyo haufai kudhalilishwa au kuchezewa. Vile vile, kuua ni kinyume cha "amri asilia", hivyo huathiri mpango mkuu wa Mungu hapa duniani.[129]

Hata hivyo, inaaminiwa kuwa ugonjwa wa akili au woga mkuu wa kuteseka hupunguza jukumu la mtu anayejiua.[130]

Hoja pinzani ni pamoja na ifuatayo: kuwa Amri ya tano imefasiliwa kifasaha kama "usitekeleze mauaji", ambayo hailengi moja kwa moja mtu binafsi; yaani Mungu amempa uhuru kila binadamu kujichagulia; ya kuwa mtu akijiua hajavunja Sheria za Mungu, sawa na kuponya ugonjwa; na kuwa visa kadhaa vya watu waliojiua vimesimuliwa katika Biblia bila kuambatana na laana yoyote.[131]

Desturi za Kiyahudi huzingatia umuhimu wa kudhamini maisha yaliyopo, hivyo kujiua huchukuliwa kuwa sawa na mtu kujinyima wema wa Mungu duniani. Licha ya hayo, katika hali mbaya ambapo hakuna chaguo lingine ila kuuawa au kulazimishwa kuisaliti dini yao, Wayahudi walijiua binafsi au kujiua kwa umati (tazama Masada, Mateso ya kwanza ya Wayahudi nchini Ufaransa, na York Castle, kwa mifano). Kwa ukumbusho wa tahadhari, kuna sala katika liturujia ya Kiyahudi ya "kisu kiwapo kooni" kwa watu wanaokufa "kulitukuza jina la Mungu "(tazama kifodini). Matendo haya yamepokewa kwa njia mbalimbali na watawala wa Kiyahudi, huku yakichukuliwa na baadhi ya watu kama mfano bora wa wafiadini mashujaa, huku wengine wakiyachukulia kama hatia kwa watu kujiua kwa kutazamia ufiadini.[132]

Uislamu haukubali kujiua.[51]

Katika Uhindu kwa jumla, kujiua hakukubaliwi, hivyo huchukuliwa kuwa dhambi sawa na kumuua mtu mwingine katika jamii ya kisasa ya Kihindu. Maandiko ya Kihindu yanasema kuwa mtu anayejiua huingia katika ulimwengu wa pepo, akitangatanga duniani hadi wakati ambapo angekufa iwapo hangejiua.[133] Hata hivyo, Uhindu hukubali haki ya kujiua kupitia njia isiyo na dhuluma ya kujinyima chakula hadi kufa, inayojulikana kama Prayopavesa.[134] Hata hivyo, Prayopavesa hukubalika tu kwa watu wasiokuwa na hamu au matarajio, wala majukumu maishani.

Ujaini una desturi sawa na hii, iitwayo Santhara. Desturi ya Sati, au kujitoa kafara kwa wajane, ilikuwepo katika Karne za Kati.

Falsafa

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Maswali mengi yameulizwa katika falsafa ya kujiua, ikiwa ni pamoja na fasili ya kujiua, ikiwa kujiua ni chaguo la busara au la, na kuruhusika kimaadili.[135] Mitazamo ya kifalsafa inayohusu kujiua kama jambo linaloweza kukubalika kimaadili hutofautiana kutoka upinzani, (kwa kuchukulia kujiua kama mwiko) hadi kuchukulia kujiua kama haki ya Kimungu ya mtu yeyote (hata mtoto mwenye afya njema) anayeamini kwamba amefikia, kwa busara na dhamiri, uamuzi wa kukatisha maisha yake.

Wapinzani wa kujiua ni pamoja na wanafalsafa Wakristo kama vile Agostino wa Hippo na Thomas Aquinas,[135] Immanuel Kant[136] na, kwa njia moja John Stuart Mill – malengo ya Mill kuhusu umuhimu wa uhuru na kujitawala yalipelekea yeye kupinga chaguo ambazo zingemzuia mtu kufanya uamuzi wa kibinafsi katika siku za usoni.[137]

Watu wengine huchukulia kujiua kama jambo halali la kujichagulia kibinafsi. Waafiki wa dhana hii husisitiza kuwa mtu yeyote hafai kushurutishwa kuteseka kinyume na mapenzi yake, hasa kutokana na hali kama vile ugonjwa usiotibika, ugonjwa wa akili na uzee usiokuwa na uwezekano wa kuimarika. Waafiki hawa hupinga imani ya kwamba, kila wakati, kujiua ni jambo lisilo la busara, badala yake wakihimiza kuwa linaweza kuwa chaguo halali la mwisho, kwa watu wanopitia maumivu makali au dhiki.[138] Dhana nyingine yenye msimamo mkali inahimiza kuwa watu wanapaswa kuruhusiwa wajichagulie kufa bila kuzingatia iwapo wanateseka au la. Waafiki mashuhuri wa dhana hii ni pamoja na mwanafalsafa Mskoti David Hume[135] na Mmarekani mwana bayojilia na maadili Jacob Appel.[124][139]

Utetezi

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Katika picha hii iliyochorwa na Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, kisufugutu, bastola na daftari iliyolazwa sakafuni zinaashiria kwamba tukio hili la kutisha limetendeka; mchoraji amejiua.[140]

Utetezi wa kujiua umetokea katika tamaduni nyingi. Jeshi la Japani, katika Vita vya pili vya dunia, liliruhusu na kutukuza mashambulizi ya kamikaze. Haya yalikuwa mashambulizi ya kujiua yaliyotekelezwa na wanajeshi wanahewa wa Milki ya Japani dhidi ya vyombo vya majini vya Majeshi ya Muungano katika awamu za mwisho za uhamasisho wa Pasifiki wa Vita II vya Dunia. Jamii ya Japani kwa jumla imechukuliwa kama "inayoruhusu" kujiua[141].

Pekuzi mtandaoni kuhusu kijiua hutoa kurasa za mtandao ambazo huruhusu au kuwezesha majaribio ya kujiua kwa kiwango cha 10-30%. Kuna maoni kuwa kurasa kama hizo zinaweza kuchochea watu walio hatarini hadi wakajiua.Baadhi ya watu hutia mkataba wa kujiua mtandaoni, wakiwa na marafiki waliokuwa wakijuana mbeleni au waliopatana katika vyumba vya majadiliano au majojpo ya habari. Hata hivyo, mtandao pia unaweza kusaidia kuzuia kujiua kupitia vikundi vya mahusiano kwa watu waliotengwa.[142]

Maeneo

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Baadhi ya maeneo yamekuwa maarufu kwa visa vingi vya majaribio ya kujiua.[143] Haya ni pamoja na Daraja la Golden Gate, Jimbo la San Francisco; msitu wa Aokigahara, Japani;[144] Beachy Head, Uingereza;[143] na Bloor Street Viaduct, jijini Toronto.[145]

Kufikia mwaka wa 2010, Daraja la Golden Gate limekuwa na zaidi ya visa 1300 vya kujiua kwa kuruka tangu daraja hilo kujengwa mnamo 1937.[146] Maeneo mengi ambapo visa vingi vya kujiua hutokea yana vizuizi vilivyojengwa ili kuzuia visa hivi.[147] Maeneo haya ni pamoja na Luminous Veil jijini Toronto,[145]na vizuizi katika mnara wa Eiffel jijini Paris na Jengo la Empire State jijini New York.[147] Tangu mwaka wa 2001, kizuizi kinaendelea kujengwa katika daraja la Golden Gate [148] Vizuizi vimeonekana kuwa mwafaka sana.

Spishi nyingine

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Baadhi ya watu hudhani kuwa kujiua hakuwezi kutokea katika viumbehai wengine, kwa sababu kujiua huhitaji jaribio la hiari la kufa.[110] Mitindo inayohusishwa na kujiua imetambulika katika salmonela zinazojitahidi kushindana na bakteria kwa kuchochea mfumo wa kingamwili dhidi ya bakteria hizi.[149] Hatua za kujikinga kwa kujiua zimetambulika katika aina ya mchwa wa Brazil, Forelius pusillus, ambapo kikundi kidogo cha mchwa huacha usalama wa kiota kila usiku, baada ya kufunga milango wakiwa nje. [150]

Afidi ya choroko, anapotishwa na mbawakawa, anaweza kujilipua na kutapakaa ili kuwakinga wengine, na hata wakati mwingine anaweza kuwaua mbawakawa hao.[151] Baadhi ya spishi za mchwa wana walinzi wanaojilipua hivyo kuwafunika adui zao na michozo inayoshikamanisha.[152][153]

Kumekuwa na ripoti zisizotegemewa za mbwa, farasi na pomboo wanaojiua, ingawa ushahidi uliopo ni mdogo na hauaminiki.[154] Kumekuwa na utafiti mdogo wa kisayansi kuhusu kujiua kwa wanyama.[155]

Visa maarufu

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Mfano wa kujiua kwa halaiki ni kujiua kwa kidini mwaka wa 1978 mjini Jonestown, ambapo wanachama 918 wa Peoples Temple, wa madhehebu ya Kimarekani, wakiongozwa naye Jim Jones, walijiua kwa kunywa Flavor Aid ya zabibu iliyochanganywa na sianidi.[156][157] Mwaka wa 1944, zaidi ya Wajapani 10,000 walijiua katika siku za mwisho za Vita vya Saipan, baadhi yao wakiruka kutoka "Suicide Cliff" na "Banzai Cliff".[158]

Mgomo wa kususia chakula, nchini Ayalandi mwaka 1981, ulioongozwa na Bobby Sands, ulisababisha vifo vya watu 10. Kisababishi cha vifo hivi kilirekodiwa na coroner kama "njaa ya kujitakia," badala ya kujiua. Kisababishi hiki kilibadilishwa na kuwa "njaa" kwenye vyeti vya kifo baada ya familia za waathiriwa kulalamika.[159] Katika Vita vya II vya Dunia Erwin Rommel aligunduliwa kufahamu mbeleni kuhusu Njama ya Julai 20 kuhusu maisha ya Hitler, hivyo akatishwa kwa hukumu ya umma, kuuawa na jeshi na pia familia yake kulipiziwa kisasi iwapo hatajua.[160]

Tanbihi

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  1. ↑ https://www.dailysignal.com/2022/06/13/study-connects-jump-in-youth-suicide-with-transgender-treatments-lack-of-parental-consent/?inf_contact_key=52c5d855ea18910d25fdd65d9dc7222b4dfbc39d7283b2cb89d5189540b69330
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Hawton K, van Heeringen K (2009). "Suicide". Lancet. 373 (9672): 1372–81. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60372-X. PMID 19376453. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ [http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-043489.pdf Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database]
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 Värnik, P (2012 Mar). "Suicide in the world". International journal of environmental research and public health. 9 (3): 760–71. doi:10.3390/ijerph9030760. PMC 3367275. PMID 22690161. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ↑ Taarifa ya WHO
  6. ↑ Meier, Marshall B. Clinard, Robert F. (2008). Sociology of deviant behavior (tol. la 14th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. uk. 169. ISBN 978-0-495-81167-1. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A (2002). "Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: a worldwide perspective". World Psychiatry. 1 (3): 181–5. PMC 1489848. PMID 16946849. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ "Indian woman commits sati suicide". Bbc.co.uk. 2002-08-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-08-26.
  9. ↑ Aggarwal, N (2009). "Rethinking suicide bombing". Crisis. 30 (2): 94–7. doi:10.1027/0227-5910.30.2.94. PMID 19525169.
  10. ↑ Stedman's medical dictionary (tol. la 28th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006. ISBN 978-0-7817-3390-8. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Krug, Etienne (2002). World Report on Violence and Health (Vol. 1). Genève: World Health Organization. uk. 185. ISBN 978-92-4-154561-7.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Gullota, edited by Thomas P. (2002). The encyclopedia of primary prevention and health promotion. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. uk. 1112. ISBN 978-0-306-47296-1. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ↑ Karch, DL (2011 Aug 26). "Surveillance for violent deaths—National Violent Death Reporting System, 16 states, 2008". Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries (Washington, D.C. : 2002). 60 (10): 1–49. PMID 21866088. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Hawton, K (2012 Jun 23). "Self-harm and suicide in adolescents". Lancet. 379 (9834): 2373–82. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60322-5. PMID 22726518. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 Vijayakumar, L (2011 May). "Substance use and suicide". Current opinion in psychiatry. 24 (3): 197–202. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283459242. PMID 21430536. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.21 Chang, B (2011 Sep). "The depressed patient and suicidal patient in the emergency department: evidence-based management and treatment strategies". Emergency medicine practice. 13 (9): 1–23, quiz 23–4. PMID 22164363. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ↑ Simpson, G (2007 Dec). "Suicidality in people surviving a traumatic brain injury: prevalence, risk factors and implications for clinical management". Brain injury : [BI]. 21 (13–14): 1335–51. doi:10.1080/02699050701785542. PMID 18066936. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Miller, M (2012 Apr). "Suicide mortality in the United States: the importance of attending to method in understanding population-level disparities in the burden of suicide". Annual review of public health. 33: 393–408. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124636. PMID 22224886. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ↑ Qin P, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB (2003). "Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: a national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997". Am J Psychiatry. 160 (4): 765–72. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.765. PMID 12668367. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Gilliland, Richard K. James, Burl E. Crisis intervention strategies (tol. la 7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. uk. 215. ISBN 978-1-111-18677-7. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Brent, DA (2008 Jun). "Familial transmission of suicidal behavior". The Psychiatric clinics of North America. 31 (2): 157–77. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.02.001. PMC 2440417. PMID 18439442. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Rozanov, V (2012 Jul). "Suicide among war veterans". International journal of environmental research and public health. 9 (7): 2504–19. doi:10.3390/ijerph9072504. PMC 3407917. PMID 22851956. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 University of Manchester Centre for Mental Health and Risk. "The National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with Mental Illness" (PDF). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2013-01-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 25 Julai 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Chehil, Stan Kutcher, Sonia (2012). Suicide Risk Management A Manual for Health Professionals (tol. la 2nd ed.). Chicester: John Wiley & Sons. ku. 30–33. ISBN 978-1-119-95311-1. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Bertolote, JM (2004). "Psychiatric diagnoses and suicide: revisiting the evidence". Crisis. 25 (4): 147–55. PMID 15580849. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ↑ van Os J, Kapur S. Schizophrenia. Lancet. 2009 [archived 2013-06-23; cited 2013-11-28];374(9690):635–45. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8. PMID 19700006.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 Tintinalli, Judith E. (2010). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. ku. 1940–1946. ISBN 0-07-148480-9.
  28. ↑ Whitlock J, Knox KL (2007). "The relationship between self-injurious behavior and suicide in a young adult population". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 161 (7): 634–40. doi:10.1001/archpedi.161.7.634. PMID 17606825. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Pirkis, J (1998 Dec). "Suicide and recency of health care contacts. A systematic review". The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science. 173: 462–74. PMID 9926074. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ↑ Luoma, JB (2002 Jun). "Contact with mental health and primary care providers before suicide: a review of the evidence". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (6): 909–16. PMID 12042175. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ↑ Perrotto, Jerome D. Levin, Joseph Culkin, Richard S. (2001). Introduction to chemical dependency counseling. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson. ku. 150–152. ISBN 978-0-7657-0289-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Fadem, Barbara (2004). Behavioral science in medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 217. ISBN 978-0-7817-3669-5.
  33. ↑ Youssef NA, Rich CL (2008). "Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review". Ann Clin Psychiatry. 20 (3): 157–69. doi:10.1080/10401230802177698. PMID 18633742.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Sher, L (2006 Jan). "Alcohol consumption and suicide". QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians. 99 (1): 57–61. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hci146. PMID 16287907. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ↑ Darke S, Ross J (2002). "Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods". Addiction. 97 (11): 1383–94. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00214.x. PMID 12410779. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ↑ Darke, S (2008 May). "Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use". Drug and alcohol review. 27 (3): 253–62. doi:10.1080/09595230801923702. PMID 18368606. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ↑ Jr, Frank J. Ayd, (2000). Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences (tol. la 2nd ed.). Philadelphia [u.a.]: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 256. ISBN 978-0-7817-2468-5. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Hughes, JR (2008 Dec 1). "Smoking and suicide: a brief overview". Drug and alcohol dependence. 98 (3): 169–78. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.06.003. PMID 18676099. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ↑ Pallanti, Stefano; Rossi, Nicolò Baldini; Hollander, Eric (2006). "11. Pathological Gambling". Katika Hollander, Eric; Stein, Dan J. (whr.). Clinical manual of impulse-control disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. uk. 253. ISBN 978-1-58562-136-1.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Oliveira, MP (2008 Jun). "[Pathological gambling and its consequences for public health]". Revista de saude publica. 42 (3): 542–9. PMID 18461253. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  41. ↑ Hansen, M (2008 Jan 17). "[Gambling and suicidal behaviour]". Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke. 128 (2): 174–6. PMID 18202728. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ↑ Manthorpe, J (2010 Dec). "Suicide in later life: public health and practitioner perspectives". International journal of geriatric psychiatry. 25 (12): 1230–8. doi:10.1002/gps.2473. PMID 20104515. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ↑ Simpson GK, Tate RL (2007). "Preventing suicide after traumatic brain injury: implications for general practice". Med. J. Aust. 187 (4): 229–32. PMID 17708726. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Anguiano, L (2012 Jul–Aug). "A literature review of suicide in cancer patients". Cancer nursing. 35 (4): E14-26. doi:10.1097/NCC.0b013e31822fc76c. PMID 21946906. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  45. ↑ Yip, edited by Paul S.F. (2008). Suicide in Asia : causes and prevention. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. uk. 11. ISBN 9789622099432. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); More than one of |pages= na |page= specified (help)
  46. ↑ Ribeiro, JD (2012 Feb). "Sleep problems outperform depression and hopelessness as cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors of suicidal ideation and behavior in young adults in the military". Journal of Affective Disorders. 136 (3): 743–50. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.049. PMID 22032872. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  47. ↑ Bernert, RA (2005 Sep). "Suicidality and sleep disturbances". Sleep. 28 (9): 1135–41. PMID 16268383. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Joiner TE, Jr (2005). "The psychology and neurobiology of suicidal behavior". Annual review of psychology. 56: 287–314. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070320. PMID 15709937. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Van Orden, K (2011 Jun). "Suicides in late life". Current psychiatry reports. 13 (3): 234–41. doi:10.1007/s11920-011-0193-3. PMC 3085020. PMID 21369952. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Koenig, HG (2009 May). "Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: a review". Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 54 (5): 283–91. PMID 19497160. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 Lester, D (2006). "Suicide and islam". Archives of suicide research : official journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research. 10 (1): 77–97. doi:10.1080/13811110500318489. PMID 16287698.
  52. ↑ Cox, William T. L.; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Devine, Patricia G.; Hollon, Steven D. (2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7 (5): 427–449. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2012-10-20. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  53. ↑ Wegman, HL (2009 Oct). "A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood". Psychosomatic Medicine. 71 (8): 805–12. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46. PMID 19779142. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ↑ Oswald, SH (2010 Jun). "History of maltreatment and mental health problems in foster children: a review of the literature". Journal of pediatric psychology. 35 (5): 462–72. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsp114. PMID 20007747. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ↑ Confer, Jaime C. (1 Januari 2010). "Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations". American Psychologist. 65 (2): 110–126. doi:10.1037/a0018413. PMID 20141266. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Stark, CR (2011). "A conceptual model of suicide in rural areas". Rural and remote health. 11 (2): 1622. PMID 21702640. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  57. ↑ Daly, Mary (Sept 2012). "Relative Status and Well-Being: Evidence from U.S. Suicide Deaths" (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Working Paper Series. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2012-10-19. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  58. ↑ Lerner, George. "Activist: Farmer suicides in India linked to debt, globalization", Jan 5,2010. Retrieved on 13 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-01-16. 
  59. ↑ Law, S (2008 Feb). "Suicide in China: unique demographic patterns and relationship to depressive disorder". Current psychiatry reports. 10 (1): 80–6. PMID 18269899. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Bohanna, I (2012). "Media guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide: a review of effectiveness". Crisis. 33 (4): 190–8. doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000137. PMID 22713977. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  61. ↑ 61.00 61.01 61.02 61.03 61.04 61.05 61.06 61.07 61.08 61.09 Yip, PS (2012 Jun 23). "Means restriction for suicide prevention". Lancet. 379 (9834): 2393–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60521-2. PMID 22726520. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Sisask, M (2012 Jan). "Media roles in suicide prevention: a systematic review". International journal of environmental research and public health. 9 (1): 123–38. doi:10.3390/ijerph9010123. PMC 3315075. PMID 22470283. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  63. ↑ Stack S (2005). "Suicide in the media: a quantitative review of studies based on non-fictional stories". Suicide Life Threat Behav. 35 (2): 121–33. doi:10.1521/suli.35.2.121.62877. PMID 15843330. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Loue, Sana (2008). Encyclopedia of aging and public health : with 19 tables. New York, NY: Springer. uk. 696. ISBN 978-0-387-33753-1.
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  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Hales, edited by Robert I. Simon, Robert E. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of suicide assessment and management (tol. la 2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub. uk. 714. ISBN 978-1-58562-414-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ↑ editor, Tarek Sobh, (2010). Innovations and advances in computer sciences and engineering (tol. la Online-Ausg.). Dordrecht: Springer Verlag. uk. 503. ISBN 978-90-481-3658-2. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ↑ Eliason, S (2009). "Murder-suicide: a review of the recent literature". The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 37 (3): 371–6. PMID 19767502.
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  70. ↑ Campbell, Robert Jean (2004). Campbell's psychiatric dictionary (tol. la 8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. uk. 636. ISBN 978-0-19-515221-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
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  72. ↑ Gutman, Yisrael (1998). Anatomy of the Auschwitz death camp (tol. la 1st pbk. ed.). Bloomington: Publ. in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. by Indiana University Press. uk. 400. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  73. ↑ Ajdacic-Gross V; Weiss MG; Ring M; na wenz. (2008). "Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database". Bull. World Health Organ. 86 (9): 726–32. doi:10.2471/BLT.07.043489. PMC 2649482. PMID 18797649. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  74. ↑ Ajdacic-Gross, Vladeta, et al."Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database"PDF (267 KB). Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86 (9): 726–732. September 2008. Accessed 2 August 2011.Archived 2 August 2011. Seehtml version Archived 8 Desemba 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. The data can be seen here [1] Archived 23 Septemba 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
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  76. ↑ Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F (2007). "The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review". BMC Public Health. 7: 357. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-357. PMC 2262093. PMID 18154668.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  77. ↑ Geddes, John. Psychiatry (tol. la 4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. uk. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-923396-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  78. ↑ "U.S. Suicide Statistics (2005)". Iliwekwa mnamo 2008-03-24.
  79. ↑ Eshun, edited by Sussie (2009). Culture and mental health sociocultural influences, theory, and practice. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. uk. 301. ISBN 9781444305814. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Krug, Etienne (2002). World Report on Violence and Health, Volume 1. Genève: World Health Organization. uk. 196. ISBN 9789241545617. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= na |page= specified (help)
  81. ↑ (editor), Diego de Leo (2001). Suicide and euthanasia in older adults : a transcultural journey. Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber. uk. 121. ISBN 9780889372511. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  82. ↑ Pjevac, M (2012 Oct). "Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour". Psychiatria Danubina. 24 Suppl 3: S336-41. PMID 23114813. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  83. ↑ Sher, L (2011). "The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the pathophysiology of adolescent suicidal behavior". International journal of adolescent medicine and health. 23 (3): 181–5. PMID 22191181.
  84. ↑ Sher, L (2011 May). "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and suicidal behavior". QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians. 104 (5): 455–8. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcq207. PMID 21051476. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Dwivedi, Yogesh (2012). The neurobiological basis of suicide. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis/CRC Press. uk. 166. ISBN 978-1-4398-3881-5.
  86. ↑ Stein, edited by George (2007). Seminars in general adult psychiatry (tol. la 2. ed.). London: Gaskell. uk. 145. ISBN 978-1-904671-44-2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  87. ↑ Autry, AE (2009 Nov 1). "Epigenetics in suicide and depression". Biological Psychiatry. 66 (9): 812–3. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.08.033. PMC 2770810. PMID 19833253. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 "Suicide prevention". WHO Sites: Mental Health. World Health Organization. Aug 31,2012. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-01-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  89. ↑ Sakinofsky, I (2007 Jun). "The current evidence base for the clinical care of suicidal patients: strengths and weaknesses". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 52 (6 Suppl 1): 7S–20S. PMID 17824349. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  90. ↑ "Suicide". The United States Surgeon General. Iliwekwa mnamo 4 Septemba 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  91. ↑ Robinson, J (2011 Jan). "Preventing suicide in young people: systematic review". The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry. 45 (1): 3–26. doi:10.3109/00048674.2010.511147. PMID 21174502. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  92. ↑ Fässberg, MM (2012 Mar). "A systematic review of social factors and suicidal behavior in older adulthood". International journal of environmental research and public health. 9 (3): 722–45. doi:10.3390/ijerph9030722. PMC 3367273. PMID 22690159. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  93. ↑ Williams, SB (2009 Apr). "Screening for child and adolescent depression in primary care settings: a systematic evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force". Pediatrics. 123 (4): e716-35. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2415. PMID 19336361. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  94. ↑ Horowitz, LM (2009 Oct). "Suicide screening in schools, primary care and emergency departments". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 21 (5): 620–7. doi:10.1097/MOP.0b013e3283307a89. PMC 2879582. PMID 19617829. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health, (CADTH) (2010). "Dialectical behaviour therapy in adolescents for suicide prevention: systematic review of clinical-effectiveness". CADTH technology overviews. 1 (1): e0104. PMC 3411135. PMID 22977392.
  98. ↑ Stoffers, JM (2012 Aug 15). "Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online). 8: CD005652. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005652.pub2. PMID 22895952. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  99. ↑ Hetrick, SE (2012 Nov 14). "Newer generation antidepressants for depressive disorders in children and adolescents". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online). 11: CD004851. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004851.pub3. PMID 23152227. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  100. ↑ Baldessarini, RJ (2003). "Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings". The Journal of clinical psychiatry. 64 Suppl 5: 44–52. PMID 12720484. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  101. ↑ Cipriani, A (2005 Oct). "Lithium in the prevention of suicidal behavior and all-cause mortality in patients with mood disorders: a systematic review of randomized trials". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (10): 1805–19. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1805. PMID 16199826. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  102. ↑ "WHO Disease and injury country estimates". World Health Organization. 2009.
  103. ↑ "Deaths estimates for 2008 by cause for WHO Member States". World Health Organization. Iliwekwa mnamo 10 Februari 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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  105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 Weiyuan, C (2009 Dec). "Women and suicide in rural China". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 87 (12): 888–9. doi:10.2471/BLT.09.011209. PMC 2789367. PMID 20454475. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 Sue, David Sue, Derald Wing Sue, Diane Sue, Stanley. Understanding abnormal behavior (tol. la Tenth ed., [student ed.]). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. uk. 255. ISBN 978-1-111-83459-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  107. ↑ https://www.heritage.org/gender/report/puberty-blockers-cross-sex-hormones-and-youth-suicide?inf_contact_key=86b22e8dd681576dcc0588920cc6f65d842e902fbefb79ab9abae13bfcb46658
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 108.2 108.3 Pitman, A (2012 Jun 23). "Suicide in young men". Lancet. 379 (9834): 2383–92. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60731-4. PMID 22726519. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  109. ↑ Szasz, Thomas (1999). Fatal freedom : the ethics and politics of suicide. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. uk. 11. ISBN 978-0-275-96646-1.
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 Maris, Ronald (2000). Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. New York [u.a.]: Guilford Press. ku. 97–103. ISBN 978-1-57230-541-0.
  111. ↑ Dickinson, Michael R. Leming, George E. Understanding dying, death, and bereavement (tol. la 7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. uk. 290. ISBN 978-0-495-81018-6. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  112. ↑ Durkheim's Suicide : a century of research and debate (tol. la 1. publ.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. 2000. uk. 69. ISBN 978-0-415-20582-5. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); |first= missing |last= (help)
  113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 Maris, Ronald (2000). Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. New York [u.a.]: Guilford Press. uk. 540. ISBN 978-1-57230-541-0.
  114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 114.2 114.3 114.4 McLaughlin, Columba (2007). Suicide-related behaviour understanding, caring and therapeutic responses. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. uk. 24. ISBN 978-0-470-51241-8.
  115. ↑ White, Tony (2010). Working with suicidal individuals : a guide to providing understanding, assessment and support. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. uk. 12. ISBN 978-1-84905-115-6.
  116. ↑ Paperno, Irina (1997). Suicide as a cultural institution in Dostoevsky's Russia. Ithaca: Cornell university press. uk. 60. ISBN 978-0-8014-8425-4.
  117. ↑ al.], David Lanham ... [et (2006). Criminal laws in Australia. Annandale, N.S.W.: The Federation Press. uk. 229. ISBN 978-1-86287-558-6.
  118. ↑ Duffy, Michael Costa, Mark (1991). Labor, prosperity and the nineties : beyond the bonsai economy (tol. la 2nd ed.). Sydney: Federation Press. uk. 315. ISBN 978-1-86287-060-4. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  119. ↑ Quill, Constance E. Putnam ; foreword by Timothy E. (2002). Hospice or hemlock? : searching for heroic compassion. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. uk. 143. ISBN 978-0-89789-921-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ↑ Holt, Gerry."When suicide was illegal". BBC News 3 August 2011. Accessed 11 August 2011.
  121. ↑ "Guardian & Observer style guide". Guardian website. The Guardian. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 Novemba 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  122. ↑ Srivastava, editors, Nitish Dogra, Sangeet. Climate change and disease dynamics in India. New Delhi: The Energy and Resources Institute. uk. 256. ISBN 978-81-7993-412-8. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  123. ↑ "German politician Roger Kusch helped elderly woman to die"Times Online Archived 1 Juni 2010 at the Wayback Machine. July 2, 2008
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 Appel, JM (2007). "A Suicide Right for the Mentally Ill? A Swiss Case Opens a New Debate". Hastings Center Report. 37 (3): 21–23. doi:10.1353/hcr.2007.0035. PMID 17649899. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  125. ↑ "Chapter 127.800–995 The Oregon Death with Dignity Act". Oregon State Legislature. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-09-16. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28.
  126. ↑ "Chapter 70.245 RCW, The Washington death with dignity act", Washington State Legislature. 
  127. ↑ Dr. Ronald Roth, D.Acu. "Suicide & Euthanasia – a Biblical Perspective". Acu-cell.com. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2009-04-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |= ignored (help)
  128. ↑ "Norman N. Holland, Literary Suicides: A Question of Style". Clas.ufl.edu. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2009-05-28. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06.
  129. ↑ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – PART 3 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 ARTICLE 5". Scborromeo.org. 1941-06-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06.
  130. ↑ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – PART 3 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 ARTICLE 5". Scborromeo.org. 1941-06-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06.
  131. ↑ "The Bible and Suicide". Religioustolerance.org. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-07-15. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06.
  132. ↑ "Euthanasia and Judaism: Jewish Views of Euthanasia and Suicide". ReligionFacts.com. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2006-05-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 2008-09-16.
  133. ↑ Hindu Website. Hinduism and suicide
  134. ↑ "Hinduism –Euthanasia and Suicide". BBC. 2009-08-25.
  135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 135.2 "Suicide (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-06.
  136. ↑ Kant, Immanuel. (1785) Kant: The Metaphysics of Morals, M. Gregor (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-521-56673-5. p177.
  137. ↑ Safranek John P (1998). "Autonomy and Assisted Suicide: The Execution of Freedom". The Hastings Center Report. 28 (4): 33.
  138. ↑ Raymond Whiting: A natural right to die: twenty-three centuries of debate, pp. 13–17; Praeger (2001) ISBN 0-313-31474-8
  139. ↑ Wesley J. Smith, Death on Demand: The assisted-suicide movement sheds its fig leaf, The Weekly Standard, June 5, 2007
  140. ↑ "The Suicide". The Walters Art Museum.
  141. ↑ Ozawa-de Silva, C (2008 Dec). "Too lonely to die alone: internet suicide pacts and existential suffering in Japan". Culture, medicine and psychiatry. 32 (4): 516–51. doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0. PMID 18800195. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  142. ↑ Durkee, T (2011 Oct). "Internet pathways in suicidality: a review of the evidence". International journal of environmental research and public health. 8 (10): 3938–52. doi:10.3390/ijerph8103938. PMC 3210590. PMID 22073021. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  143. ↑ 143.0 143.1 Robinson, edited by David Picard, Mike. Emotion in motion : tourism, affect and transformation. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate. uk. 176. ISBN 978-1-4094-2133-7. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  144. ↑ Robinson, ed. by Peter (2010). Research themes for tourism. Oxfordshire [etc.]: CABI. uk. 172. ISBN 978-1-84593-684-6. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  145. ↑ 145.0 145.1 Dennis, Richard (2008). Cities in modernity : representations and productions of metropolitan space, 1840 – 1930 (tol. la Repr.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Press. uk. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-46841-1.
  146. ↑ McDougall, Tim (2010). Helping children and young people who self-harm : an introduction to self-harming and suicidal behaviours for health professionals. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. uk. 23. ISBN 978-0-415-49913-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  147. ↑ 147.0 147.1 Bateson, John (2008). Building hope : leadership in the nonprofit world. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. uk. 180. ISBN 978-0-313-34851-8.
  148. ↑ Miller, David (2011). Child and Adolescent Suicidal Behavior: School-Based Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention. uk. 46. ISBN 978-1-60623-997-1.
  149. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (Agosti 25, 2008). "In Salmonella Attack, Taking One for the Team". New York Times. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  150. ↑ Tofilski,Adam; Couvillon, MJ;Evison, SEF; Helantera, H; Robinson, EJH; Ratnieks, FLW (2008). "Preemptive Defensive Self-Sacrifice by Ant Workers" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 172 (5): E239–E243. doi:10.1086/591688. PMID 18928332.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  151. ↑ Larry O'Hanlon (Machi 10, 2010). "Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior". Discovery News. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2010-07-25. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
  152. ↑ <Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>. "Life In The Undergrowth". BBC. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  153. ↑ Bordereau, C; Robert, A.; Van Tuyen, V.; Peppuy, A. (August, 1997). "Suicidal defensive behaviour by frontal gland dehiscence in Globitermes sulphureus Haviland soldiers (Isoptera)". Insectes Sociaux. 44 (3). Birkhäuser Basel: 289. doi:10.1007/s000400050049. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2020-04-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  154. ↑ Nobel, Justin (Mar. 19, 2010). "Do Animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate". Time. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-08-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  155. ↑ Stoff, David; Mann, J. John (1997). "Suicide Research". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 836 (Neurobiology of Suicide, The : From the Bench to the Clinic). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: 1–11. Bibcode:1997NYASA.836....1S. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb52352.x. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2020-04-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  156. ↑ Hall 1987, p.282
  157. ↑ "Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project." Archived 18 Mei 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Alternative Considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple. San Diego State University.Kigezo:WebCite
  158. ↑ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945, Random House, 1970, p. 519
  159. ↑ Suicide and Self-Starvation, Terence M. O'Keeffe, Philosophy, Vol. 59, No. 229 (Jul., 1984), pp. 349–363
  160. ↑ Watson, Bruce (2007). Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942–43. Stackpole Books. uk. 170. ISBN 978-0-8117-3381-6.
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