Kipandauso
Migraine | |
---|---|
Mwainisho na taarifa za nje | |
Kundi Maalumu | Neurology |
ICD-10 | G43. |
ICD-9 | 346 |
OMIM | 157300 |
DiseasesDB | 8207 (Migraine) 31876 (Basilar) 4693 (FHM) |
MedlinePlus | 000709 |
eMedicine | neuro/218 neuro/517 emerg/230 neuro/529 |
MeSH | D008881 |
Kipandauso ni tatizo linalotambulika kwa maumivu ya kichwa yanayojirudia tena makali hadi kiasi cha kupindukia na ambayo wakati mwingi huambatana na dalili nyingi za mfumo wa neva.
Jina la Kiingereza "Migraine" limetoka katika neno la Kigiriki ἡμικρανία (hemikrania), "uchungu kwa upande mmoja wa kichwa",[1] kutoka ἡμι- (hemi-), "nusu", na κρανίον (kranion), "fuvu la kichwa".[2]
Kwa kawaida, maumivu hayo huathiri sehemu moja ya kichwa, huku kikidunda kwa muda wa saa 2 hadi 72. Dalili zinazohusiana na hali hii ni pamoja na kichefuchefu, kutapika, fotofobia, fonofobia (ongezeko la usikivu dhidi ya sauti) na uchungu wake kwa kawaida huzidishwa na shughuli za kimwili.[3] Hadi thuluthi moja ya watu wenye ugonjwa wa kipandauso kinachoandamana na maumivu ya kichwa hupata aura: ishara bandia ya matatizo ya macho, hisia, lugha au mwendo inayoashiria kuwa maumivu ya kichwa yatatokea punde.[3]
Kipandauso huaminika kutokea kufuatia mchanganyiko wa masuala ya kimazingira na kijeni.[4]Thuluthi mbili za kesi hizo zinahusika na familia.[5]
Kiwango cha homoni kinachoshuka na kupanda pia kinaweza kuwa kisababishi cha ugonjwa huu: kipandauso huathiri wavulana kwa kiwango cha juu kidogo kuliko wasichana kabla ya kubalehe, ingawa kinawaathiri wanawake mara mbili hadi tatu kuliko wanaume,[6][7] ila ujauzito unakipunguza.[6]
Utaratibu wa ugonjwa huu haujatambulika. Hata hivyo, hali hii inaaminika kuwa tatizo la mfumo wa neva.[5] Nadharia ya msingi inahusiana na kuongezeka kwa uchangamfu wa koteksi ya serebramu na udhibiti usio wa kawaida wa maumivu ya nyuroni kwa kiiniseli cha trijemia cha mfumo wa ubongo.[8]
Matibabu ya kwanza yanayopendekezwa ni dawa za kuondoa maumivu kama vile ibuprofen na acetaminophen ili kutuliza maumivu ya kichwa na antiemetic ili kutuliza kichefuchefu na kuepuka vichocheo. Dawa maalumu kama vile triptan au ergotamine zinaweza kutumika kwa watu wasiosaidiwa na dawa za kawaida za kuondoa maumivu. Zaidi ya asilimia 10 ya watu wote ulimwenguni huathiriwa na kipandauso wakati fulani maishani mwao.
Ishara na dalili
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kwa kawaida kipandauso hutokea pamoja na maumivu ya kichwa makali, yanayojisetiri na yanayojirudiarudia ambayo huhusishwa na dalili za mfumo unaojiongoza wa neva.[5][9] Takriban asilimia 15-30 za wenye kipandauso hukabiliwa na aura[10][11] lakini mara nyingi hupata kipandauso kisicho na dalili za aura.[12] Ukali wa maumivu ya kichwa, muda yanayochukua na marudio yake hubadilika mara kwa mara.[5] Kipandauso kinachodumu zaidi ya saa 72 hujulikana kwa Kilatini kama status migrainosus.[13]
Kuna awamu nne zinazoweza kutokea kwa kipandauso, ingawa si sharti mtu azipitie zote :[3]
- Dalili za awali ambazo hutokea saa au siku chache kabla ya maumivu ya kichwa
- aura hutangulia maumivu ya kichwa
- Awamu ya maumivu ya kichwa.
- Dalili za baadaye, athari zinazofuatia kukabiliwa na kipandauso
Awamu ya dalili za awali
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Dalili za awali hutokea kwa asilimia ~60 ya watu wanaopata kipandauso[14][15] zinazoanza kwa saa mbili hadi siku mbili kabla ya kuanza kwa maumivu au aura [16] Dalili hizi zinajumuisha visa mbalimbali [17] pamoja na: mabadiliko kwa halihisi ya moyo, kukereka, mfadhaiko au uforia, uchovu, kushaukia chakula fulani, kukazana misuli (hasa shingoni), uyabisi wa utumbo au kuhara, na kuchukia harufu au kelele.[14] Hali hii inaweza kutokea kwa watu wenye kipandauso chenye aura au kisicho na aura[18]
Awamu ya aura
[hariri | hariri chanzo]aura ni hali ya neva za macho inayopita na hutokea kabla au wakati wa maumivu ya kichwa.[15]Dalili hizi hutokea polepole kwa dakika kadhaa na kwa jumla hudumu kwa kipindi kisichopita dakika 60 .[19] Dalili hizi zinaweza kuwa za kuona, kuhisi au za kimwendo, na watu wengi hupata zaidi ya dalili moja.[20] Athari za kuona ndizo zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi, na hutokea kwa hadi visa asilimia 99 na zaidi, nusu yake vikiwa na hatari hizi pekee.[20] Matatizo ya kuona mara nyingi huhusisha skotoma yenye vimulimuli (eneo la jicho lisiloona kwa sehemu ya kutazamia inayowaka).[15] Tatizo hili kwa kawaida huanzia karibu na kiini cha sehemu ya kuona, kisha kusambaa kuelekea pande zote kwa mistari ya zigizagi inayofananishwa na nguzo au kuta.[20] Kwa kawaida, mistari hii huwa nyeusi na nyeupe lakini watu wengine huona mistari yenye rangi.[20] Baadhi ya watu hupoteza sehemu muhimu ya kuona inayojulikana kama hemianopsia huku wengine wakipata kiwaa.[20]
Aura ya kihisia ni aura ya pili kati ya aura zinazotokea mara nyingi huku ikitokea kwa asilimia 30-40 ya watu wenye aura.[20] Mara nyingi hisia kama ya kudungwa kwa vipini- na-sindano huanzia kwa upande mmoja wa mkono kisha kuenea hadi sehemu ya pua na kinywa kwa upande uo huo.[20] Kufa ganzi mara nyingi hutokea baada ya hisia ya mwasho na kupoteza hisia za ubinafsia.[20] Dalili zingine za awamu ya aura ni pamoja na: tatizo la kuzungumza, hisia za dunia kuzunguka, na mara nadra matatizo ya kimwendo.[20] Kuwepo kwa dalili za kimwendo huashiria kuwa kuna kipandauso cha hemiplejia na udhaifu kudumu kwa zaidi ya saa moja, tofauti na aura zingine.[20] Ni nadra kwa aura kudumu bila kufuatiwa na maumivu ya kichwa, [20]na hujulikana kama kipandauso kimya.
Awamu ya maumivu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kwa kawaida maumivu ya kichwa huathiri upande mmoja, hudunda, na ukali wake huwa wa kadri hadi mkali mno.[19] Kwa kawaida hali hii huja polepole[19] na huzidishwa kwa kujishugulisha sana.[3]Hata hivyo, kwa visa zaidi ya asilimia 40, maumivu yanaweza kuathiri pande zote mbili huku maumivu ya shingo yakihusishwa na hali hii.[21] Maumivu ya pande zote mbili huwa hasa kwa watu walio na kipandauso bila aura.[15] Maumivu yasiyo ya kawaida yanaweza kutokea hasa kwa sehemu ya nyuma au ya juu ya kichwa.[15] Kwa kawaida, maumivu hudumu kwa saa 4 hadi 72 kwa watu wazima[19] ingawa katia watoto mara nyingi yanadumu kwa kipindi kisichozidi saa 1 .[22] Marudio ya kukabiliwa na hali hii hubadilika mara kwa mara, kutoka visa vichache maishani hadi visa kadhaa kwa wiki, huku wastani ukiwa ni mara moja kwa mwezi .[23][24]
Mara nyingi maumivu huandamana na kichefuchefu, kutapika, usikivu dhidi ya mwanga, usikivu dhidi ya sauti, usikivu dhidi ya harufu , uchovu na kukereka.[15] Kwa, kipandauso cha basila, kipandauso chenye dalili za kinurolojia zinazohusiana na shina la ubongo au chenye dalili za kinurolojia kwenye pande zote za mwili,[25]athari za kawaida zikiwa ni pamoja na: kuhisi kana kwamba dunia inazunguka, wepesi wa kichwan, na kuwa na utatanishi.[15] Kichefuchefu hutokea kwa takriban watu asilimia 90, huku takriban thuluthi moja wakitapika.[26] Hivyo basi, watu wengi hutafuta chumba kitulivu chenye giza. [26] Dalili zingine ni pamoja na: kiwaa, kufungana pua, kuhara, kukojoa kila mara, kuparara, au kulowa jasho.[27] Uvimbe au uchungu kwenye ngozi ya sehemu ya juu ya kichwa, na shingo kuwa ngumu ni hali zinazoweza kutokea[27] Dalili husika huwa nadra kwa watu wazee.[28]
Dalili za baadaye
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Athari za kipandauso zinaweza kudumu kwa siku kadhaa baada ya maumivu makuu kuisha; hii huitwa dalili za baadaye za kipandauso. Watu wengi hukisia kuwa na hisia za mwasho kwa eneo lililoathiriwa na kipandauso na wengine kusema wana ulemavu wa kifikra kwa siku chache baada ya maumivu ya kichwa. Mgonjwa anaweza kuchoka au kupata 'maruerue' na maumivu ya kichwa, matatizo ya kiutambuzi, dalili za tumbo na utumbo, mabadiliko ya kihisia, na udhaifu.[29]Kwa muhtasari mmoja, " Baadhi ya watu hupata hisia ya uchangamfu usio wa kawaida baada ya kukabiliwa na hali hii, huku wengine wakiripoti kupata mfadhaiko na unyonge wa mwili."[30]
Kisababishi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kisababishi halisi cha kipandauso hakijulikani[31] Hata hivyo, kipandauso hukisiwa kuhusiana na mchanganyiko wa vipengele vya kimazingira na kijeni.[4] Hali hii hurithiwa kifamilia - kwa thuluthi mbili ya visa [5] na hutokea nadra kufuatia hitilafu moja ya kijeni.[32]Baadhi ya hali za kisaikolojia yanayohusishwa ni pamoja na: mfadhaiko, [[wasiwasi na maradhi ya hisia mseto[33] as are many biological events or triggers.
Jenetikia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utafiti wa mapacha umedhihirisha uwezekano wa asilimia 34 hadi 51 wa vipengele vya kijeni kuathiri uwepo wa maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso.[4] Uhusiano huu wa kijeni ni mkuu zaidi kwa watu wenye kipandauso chenye aura kuliko wale wasio.[12]Kuwepo kwa aina maalum za jeni huongeza hatari kutoka kiasi kidogo hadi wastani.[34]
Hitilafu ya jeni moja inayopelekea kipandauso ni ya nadra.[34] Mojawapo ya hali hizi hujulikana kama kipandauso cha familia cha hemiplejia, aina ya kipandauso chenye aura]] ambacho hurithiwa kwa njia ya autosomia kuu [35][36] Hitilafu hizi zinahusiana na aina za miundo ya jeni za protini zinazohusika kwa usafirishaji wa ioni.[15] Hitilafu nyingine inayosababisha kipandauso ni sindromu ya CADASIL au ateriofati yenye ukuu wa autosomia na yenye inifarakti na lukoensefalopathia chini ya koteksi.[15]
Vichochezi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kipandauso kinaweza kuanzishwa na vichochezi, huku baadhi ya watu wakiripoti kuwa hali hii huwa hatari tu kwa visa vichache[5] na wengine kwa visa vingine.[37] Vitu vingi vimedaiwa kuwa vichochezi, ingawa uzito na umuhimu wa madai hayo haujadhibitishwa.>[37][38]Kichochezi kinaweza kutokea na kudumu hadi saa 24 kabla ya dalili kuanza.[5]
Vipengele vya kifiziolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Vichochezi vilivyotajwa mara nyingi ni mfadhaiko, njaa na uchovu (vichochezi hivi huchangia kutokea kwa maumivu ya kichwa yanayotokana na mahangaiko).[37]]] Kuna uwezekano mkubwa wa kipandauso kutokea siku zinazokaribiana na hedhi.[39]Athari zingine za kihomoni, kama vile hedhi ya kwanza, na matumizi ya tembe za kuzuia mimba, ujauzito, muda unaokaribia ukomohedhi naukomohedhi pia huhusishwa na kipandauso.[40] Athari hizi za kihomoni huhusika pakubwa kwa kutokea kwa kipandauso kisicho na aura.[41] Kwa kawaida kipandauso hakitokei kwa ya pili na na trimesta ya tatu au kufuatia ukomohedhi.[15]
Vipengele vya kilishe
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utafiti kuhusu vichochezi vinavyohusu lishe umegundua kuwa ushahidi hutegemea utathmini dhahania na hautilii maanani kuthibitisha au kukanusha kichochezi chochote.[42][43] Kuhusu vipengele maalum, hakuna ushahidi kuhusu jinsi tairamini inavyoathiri kipandauso[44] nayo monosodium glutamate (MSG) imeripotiwa mara nyingi kuwa kichochezi cha kilishe[45], mara nyingi ushahidi hauafikiani na wazo hili.[46]
Vipengele vya kimazingira
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Vichochezi kwa mazingira ya ndani na nje ni thibithisho kuwa ushahidi wa kijumla ilikuwa duni, lakini ulishauri kuwa watu wenye kipandauso wachukue hatua za kuzuia kipandauso zinazohusiana na ubora wa hewa ya ndani na mwangaza.[47] Wazo kuwa vichochezi hivi hupatikana mara nyingi kwa watu werevu zaidi si kweli.[41]
Pathofisiolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kipandauso kinaaminiwa kuwa tatizo la neva na mishipa[5] pamoja na ushahidi unaothibitisha utaratibu wa kipandauso kuanzia ndani ya ubongo kisha kuenea hadi kwenye mishipa ya damu.[48] Baadhi ya watafiti huamini kuwa taratibu za kiniuronihuchangia pakubwa,[49] huku wengine wakiamini kuwa mishipa ya damu huchangia zaidi.[50] Watafiti wengine huhisi kuwa athari zote mbili huhusika pakubwa.[51] Kiwango kikubwa cha niurotransmita serotonini, pia inayojulikana kama 5-hydroxytryptamine, inaaminiwa kuhusika.[48]
Aura
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Mfadhaiko unaosambaa kwenye koteksi au mfadhaiko wa kusambaa kwenye Leão ni mchipuko ghafla wa shughuli za kineva unaofuatiwa na kipindi kisicho na shughuli, hali inayopatikana kwa twatu wenye kipandauso chenye aura.[52] Kuna maelezo mengi kuhusu kutokea kwa hali hii, ikiwa ni pamoja na uchochezi wa kipokezi cha NMDA, hali inayopelekea kalisi kuingia kwenye seli.[52] Baada mchipuko huu wa ghafla wa shughuli, mtiririko wa damu kuelekea koteksi ya serebramu kwa sehemu iliyoathirika hupungua kwa muda wa saa mbili hadi sita.[52] Inaaminiwa kuwa uondoaji wa kingamizi unapoelekea kwenye sehemu ya chini ya ubongo, neva za uchungu kichwani na shingoni huchochewa.[52]
Maumivu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utaratibu halisi wa maumivu ya kichwa ambayo hutokea wakati wa kipandauso haujulikani.[53]. Ushahidi unaafiki jukumu la kimsingi wa sehemu za mfumo mkuu wa neva (kama vile shina la ubongo na diensefaloni) [54] huku utafiti mwingine ukiafiki jukumu la uchochezi kwenye sehemu za pembeni( kama vile kupitia kwaneva za hisia zinayozingira mishipa ya damuya kichwa na shingo).[53] Mishipa inayoweza kuathirika ni pamoja na: ateri za dura, ateri ya pia na ateri zilizo nje ya fuvu kama zile za ngozi ya kichwa.[53] Jukumu la kupanuka kwa ateri, hususan zilizoko nje ya fuvu inaaminiwa kuwa muhimu [55]
Utambuzi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utambuzi wa kipandauso hutegemea ishara na dalili.[5] upigaji pichahufanywa mara nyingi ili kubainisha visababishi vingine vya maumivu ya kichwa.[5] Inaaminika kwamba idadi kubwa ya watu wenye hali hii hawajatambuliwa.[5]
Utambuzi wa kipandauso bila aura unaweza kufanyika kwa kufuata kanuni ya "5, 4, 3, 2, 1; kulingana na International Headache Society,,:[3]
- Kukabiliwa na kipandauso chenye aura mara tano au zaidi—, makabiliano mawili yanatosha kufanya utambuzi.
- Kipandauso kudumu kwa saa nne hadi siku tatu
- Mawili au zaidi ya yafuatayo:
- Maumivu ya upande mmoja (yanayoathiri nusu ya kichwa);
- Kudundadunda;
- "Maumivu ya kadri hadi makali";
- "Inayoongezeka kuwa chungu au inayotatiza shughuli za kila siku za mwili ."
- Moja au zaidi ya haya:
- Kichefuchefu na/au kutapika;
- Usikivu dhidi ya mwanga (fotophobia) na usikivu dhidi ya sauti (fonofobia)
Ikiwa mtu ataweza kukumbwa na hali mbili kati ya hizi: fotophobia, kichefuchefu, au kutoweza kufanya kazi/kusoma kwa siku moja, kuna uwezekano wa kuwa na kipandauso .[56] Kwa watu wenye hali nne kati ya hali tano zifuatazo: maumivu ya kichwa ya kudundadunda, maumivu kudumu kwa saa 4–72, maumivu kwa upande mmoja wa kichwa, kichefuchefu au dalili zinazotatiza maisha ya mtu, uwezekano wa kipandauso ni asilimia 92[11] Kwa watu wenye dalili hizi chini ya tatu uwezekano ni asilimia 17[11]
Uainishaji
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Mwaka 1988 ndio wakati wa kwanza kwa kipandauso kuainishwa kwa kina.[12] Shirika laInternational Headache Society hivi karibuni walibadilisha uainishaji wao mwaka wa 2004.[3]Kulingana na uainishaji huu, kipandauso ni maumivu ya kimsingi ya kichwa yanayoandamana na aina ya maumivu ya kichwa]] yenye [[wasi wasi na maumivu ya kichwa mbalimbali na mengineyo.[57]
Kipandauso kimeainishwa kwa vitengo saba (baadhi ya vitengo hivi vimegawanywa zaidi kwa vijitengo vingi):
- Kipandauso bila aura au "kipandauso cha kawaida", kinahusisha maumivu ya kichwa yasiyoandamana na aura
- Kipandauso chenye aura au "kipandauso maalum", kinahusisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayoandamana na aura. Kwa mara nadra, aura inaweza kutokea bila maumivu ya kichwa au kuandamana na maumivu ya kichwa yasiyohusika na kipandauso. Vijitengo vingine viwili ni kipandauso cha familia na kipandauso mtawanyiko, ambapo mtu anapata kipandauso chenye aura na kinachoandamana na udhaifu wa kimwendo. Ikiwa jamaa kwa familia amewahi kupata hali hii, basi itaitwa "kipandauso cha kifamilia"; la sivyo kipandauso "mtawanyiko". Aina nyingine ni kipanduso cha aina ya basila , ambapo maumivu ya kichwa na aura huandamana na ugumu wa kuongea, hisia ya kuwa dunia inazunguka, kelele kama king'ora maskioni au dalili zingine nyingi zinazohusiana na shina la ubongo, lakini sio udhaifu wa kimwendo. Awali, aina hii iliaminiwa kufuatia spazimu ya ateri ya basila, ateri inayosafirisha damu kwenye shina la ubongo.[25]
- Sindromu ya utotoni ambayo kwa kawaida ni kitangulizi cha kipandauso ni pamoja na msururu wa kutapika (vipindi vichache vya kutapika sana), kipanduso cha fumbatio (maumivu ya fumbatio, mara nyingi huandamana na kichefuchefu), na kisulisuli hafifu cha utotoni kinachotokea ghafla (kukabiliwa na kisulisuli mara chache).
- Kipandauso cha retinali kinajumuisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayoandamana na kutoona vizuri au hata upofu wa jicho moja kwa siku chache.
- Matatizo ya kipandauso ni maumivu ya kichwa na/au aura ambayo hudumu kwa muda mrefu au kutokea mara nyingi kuliko inavyokuwa kawaida au kuandamana na kifafa au kidonda kwenye ubongo.
- Uwezekano wa kipandauso huashiriwa na hali zilizo na baadhi ya sifa za kipandauso, lakini hakuna ushahidi tosha wa kutambua kwa hakika kama ni kipanduso (wakati kuna matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi kwa mfululizo).
- Kipandauso sugu ni tatizo kufuatia vipandauso, na ni maumivu ya kichwa yanayothibitisha mbinu ya kiutambuzi wa maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso na hujirudia baada ya muda mrefu. Hususan, siku 15 au zaidi kwa mwezi kwa kipindi cha zaidi ya miezi mitatu.[58]
Kipandauso cha fumbatio
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utambuzi wa kipandauso cha fumbatio umekumbwa na utata.[59] Baadhi ya utafiti umeonyesha kuwa visa vya kujirudia ya maumivu ya fumbatio yanaweza kuwa ni aina ya kipandauso [59][60] Au angalau ni kitangulizi cha kipandauso[12] Visa hivi yanaweza au kutoweza kufuatiwa na dalili zinazoashiria kipandauso na kwa kawaida hudumu kwa dakika chache hadi saa kadhaa[59] Mara nyingi, visa hivi hutokea kwa watu wenye historia ya kipandauso maalumu kwa mtu binafsi au kwa familia.[59]Sindromu zingine zinazoaminika kuwa viashiria ni pamoja na:sindromu ya msururu wa kutapika na kutokea kwa ghafla kwa kisulisuli hafifu cha utotoni .[12]
Dalili za kifisiolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Hali zingine zinazoweza kuleta dalili sawa na maumivu ya kichwa ya kipandauso ni pamoja na: maambukizi ya ateri ya panja, maumivu ya kichwa upande mmoja, klaukoma kali, meningitisi na kuvuja damu kwenye sehemu ya chini ya araknoidi ya ubongo.[11] Kwa kawaida maambukizi ya ateri ya panja hutokea kwa watu wenye umri zaidi ya miaka 50 na huandamana na uchungu kwa panja, maumivu ya kichwa ya upande mmoja hutambulika kwa kufungana kwa pua moja, machozi na maumivu makali kwa obiti obiti, klaukoma kali huhusika na matatizo ya kuona, meningitisi na homana kuvuja damu kwenye sehemu ya chini ya araknoidi ya ubongo.[11] Maumivu ya kichwa kutokana na wasiwasi kwa kawaida hutokea kwa pande zote mbili, hayadhoofishi wala kulemaza sana.[11]
Kinga
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Matibabu ya kuzuia kipandauso ni pamoja na: dawa, lishe mbadala, kubadilisha mienendo ya maisha, na upasuaji. Kinga hupendekezwa kwa watu wenye maumivu ya kichwa kwa zaidi ya siku mbili kwa wiki, wasioweza kutibika kwa dawa za kupunguza makali au wenye maumivu makali yasiyoweza kudhibitiwa.[11]
Malengo ya hatua hizi ni kupunguza marudio, maumivu na/au muda wa kudumu wa kipandauso, na kuongeza ubora wa matibabu ya awali.[61] Sababu nyingine ya kinga ni kuepuka maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi. Jambo hili ni tatizo linalotolea mara nyingi na linaweza kusababisha maumivu makali ya kichwa kila siku.[62][63]
Tiba
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Matibabu ya kuzuia kipandauso yanakisiwa kuwa bora ikiwa yatapunguza visa au ukali wa kipandauso kwa asilimia 50[64] Miongozo huwa na yamkini viwango thabiti kwa kutathmini topiramate, divalproex/sodium valproate, propranolol nametoprolol kama dawa zilizo na kiwano cha juu zaidi cha ushahidi kuhusu matumizi ya matibabu ya kwanza| yanayopendekezwakwanza .[65] Mapendekezo kuhusu ubora ulitofautiana kuhusu gabapentin.[65] Timolol pia ni bora kwa kuzuia kipandauso na kupunguza makali na marudio yake huku frovatriptan ikizuia kipandauso kinachohusiana na hedhi[65] Amitriptyline na venlafaxine vile vile ni bora.[66] Botox imegunduliwa kuwa bora kwa watu wenye kipandauso cha kudumu wala sio wenye kipandauso cha muda tu.[67]
Tiba mbadala
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Akupancha ni matibabu bora ya kipandauso.[69] Matumizi ya akupancha "halisi" siyo bora kuliko matumizi ya akupancha "bandia". Hata hivyo, aina zote zimegunduliwa kuwa bora kuliko utunzanji kidesturi, kwani zinaandamana na mathara machache zaidi kuliko matumizi ya dawa ya profilaktiki.[70] Tibamwili, tibamaungo, kupapasa na kupumzika huwa bora sawa na matumizi ya dawa ya propranolol au topiramate kwa kuzuia maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso; hata hivyo mbinu iliyotumika kwa utafiti huu ina walakini.[71] Kuna ushahidi ulio na tashwishi wa ubora wa: magnisiamu, enzaimu pacha Q10, riboflavin, vitamini B(12),[72] and Fever-few, ingawa majaribio mwafaka yanafaa kufanywa ili kuthibitisha matokeo haya ya mwanzo.[73]Matumizi ya butterbur yamethibitiwa kuwa bora kati ya matibabu mbadala.[74]
Vifaa na upasuaji
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Vifaa vya kimatibabu kama vile bayomwitiko na vichochea neva vina manufaa fulani kwa kuzuia kipandauso, hasa wakati dawa ya kuzuia kipandauso zimetumika bila kuzingatia maagizo kama vile kutumia dawa kupita kiasi. Bayomwitiko husaidia watu kufahamu baadhi ya parameta za kifiziolojia ili waweze kuzidhibiti na kujaribu kutulia, hivyo inaweza kuwa bora kwa kutibu kipandauso.[75][76] Uchochezi neva hutumia vichocheaneva vya kubandika vilivyo sawa na viongozamwendo vya kutibu kipandauso sugu huku matokeo bora yakiwepo hasa kwa visa vya kipandauso kikali[77][78] Upasuaji wa kipandauso , unaohusu kugandamua neva fulani kwa sehemu ya kichwa na shingo, inaweza kuwa chaguo kwa watu ambao afya yao haijaimarika kufuatia matibabu mengine.[79]
Udhibiti
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kuna njia tatu kuu za matibabu: kuepuka vichochezi, kudhibiti dalili kali za ghafla na kuzuia kwa kutumia dawa.[5] Dawa ni bora ikiwa itatumika punde tu mtu anapokabiliwa na hali hii.[5] Marudio ya kutumia dawa mara nyingi husababisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi na maumivu ya kichwa huzidi kuwa makali na kutokea mara nyingi zaidi.[3] Hii inaweza kutokea kwa triptani, ergotaminesna vitoa maumivu hasa vya aina ya narkotia.[3]
Viondoa maumivu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Matibabu ya kwanza yanayopendekezwa kwa watu wenye dalili zisizo kali hadi za wastani ni vitoa maumivu vya kawaida dawa ya inflamesheni isiyo na steroidi au mchanganyiko wa acetaminophen, asidi ya asitilsalikiliki na kafeni.[11] Dawa kadhaa za kutibu inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi zimetambulika kuwa bora. Ibuprofen imegunduliwa kupunguza maumivu kikamilifu kwa takriban nusu ya watu wanaoitumia[80] Diclofenacimethibitiwa kuwa bora pia[81]
Aspirin inaweza kupunguza maumivu wastani ya kipandauso hadi yaliyo makali huku ikiwa na ubora sawa na sumatriptan.[82] Ketorolac inapatikana kwa muundo wa kudungia mishipani [11] Paracetamol (pia inayojulikana kama acetaminophen), aidha ikiwa pekee au ikiwa imechanganywa na metoclopramide ni tiba nyingine yenye madhara machache.[83] Kwa ujauzito, acetaminophen na metoclopramide huaminika kuwa dawa salama na bora zaidi hadi trimesta ya tatu ya ujauzito.[11]
Triptani
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Triptani, kama vile sumatriptan, ni dawa bora ya kutibu maumivu na kichefuchefu hadi asilimia 75 ya watu.[5][84] Dawa hizi hupendekezwa kutumika mwanzoni kwa watu wenye maumivu ya wastani hadi makali au kwa watu wenye dalili hafifu zisizotibika kwa vitoa maumivu vya kawaida.[11] Njia za kutumia dawa hizi ni pamoja na kumeza, kudungia, kunyunyisia puani, na kumumunya.[5] Kwa jumla, triptani zote zinaonekana kuwa bora huku zikiwa na madhara sawa. Hata hivyo, watu binafsi wanaweza kuafikiana na dawa maalum.[11] Madhara mengi huwa si makal, kama vile wekundu usoni; ingawa, visa vichache vya iskemia ya miokadiumu vimeripotiwa.[5] Hivyo basi dawa hizi hazipendekezwi kwa watu wenye magonjwa ya mfumo wa moyo na mishipa.[11] Kwa historia, dawa hizi hazipendekezwi kwa watu wenye kipandauso cha basila, ingawa hakuna ushahidi maalum wa hatari unaothibitisha tahadhari hii.[25] Dawa hizi hazipelekei uraibu wowote lakini zinaweza kusababisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi hasa zikitumiwa kwa zaidi ya siku 10 kwa mwezi.[85]
Ergotamini
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Ergotaminina dihidroergotamini ni aina ya dawa za kitambo ambazo zingali zinapendekezwa kutumika kutibu kipandauso, za hivi punde zikiwa na muundo wa kunyunyisia pua na kudungia.[5] Dawa hizi zimethibitishwa kuwa bora sawa na triptani,[86] ni zaa bei nafuu zaidi,[87] na huwa na madhara makali ambayo kawaida ni hafifu.[88] Dawa hizi ni chaguo bora zaidi kwa watu wenye visa vikali ya kipandauso.[88]
Dawa nyingine
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Metoclopramide ya kudungia mishipani au lidocaineya kuingizia puani ni chaguo zingine zilizoko.[11] Metoclopramide inapendekezwa kwa watu wanaoletwa hospitalini ili kupata usaidizi wa dharura.[11] Kipimo kimoja cha dexamethasoneya kudungia mishipani kikiongezwa kwenye tiba iliyoafikiwa ya kipandauso huhusika kwa kupunguza kurejea kwa maumivu ya kichwa kwa asilimia 26 kwa saa 72 zinazofuata.[89] Njia ya kutibu mfululizo wa maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso kwa kutumia kunyoosha uti wa mgongo haina ushahidi wowote.[90] Inapendekezwa kuwa dawa ya opioid na barbiturate isitumike[11]
Prognosisi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Prognosisi ya muda mrefu kwa watu wenye kipandauso hubadilika mara kwa mara.[9] Watu wengi wenye kipandauso hupoteza wakati mwingi wa kufanya kazi kufuatia ugonjwa huu[5]. Hata hivyo, kwa kawaida hali hii si hatari sana[9] na haihusishwi na kuongezeka kwa hatari ya kifo.[91] Ugonjwa huu una mikondo minne mikuu: dalili kutoweka kabisa, dalili kuendelea huku zikipunguka wakati unapopita, dalili kuendelea kwa kiwango sawa na ukali uo huo au makabiliano kuzidi kuwa mabaya na kujirudia mara nyingi zaidi.[9]
Kipandauso chenye aura huonekana kuwa hatari yakiharusi ya iskemia[92] doubling the risk.[93]Kuwa kijana, mtu wa jinsia ya kike, kutumiavizuia mimba vyenye homoni na kuvuta sigara huongeza hatari ya kupata ugonjwa huu.[92]. Pia hatari hii huonekana kuwa na uhusiano na kupasuka kwa ateri ya seviksi.[94] Kipandauso bila aura hakionekani kuwa kipengele.[95]. Uhusiano wa hali hii na matatizo ya moyo sio wazi, huku utafiti mmoja ukiafiki uhusiano huo. [92] Kwa ujumla, kipandauso hakionekani kuongeza hatari ya kufa kufuatia kiharusi au ugonjwa wa moyo.[91] Matibabu ya kipandauso kwa wenye kipandauso chenye aura yanaweza kuzuia kiharusi husika.[96]
Epidemolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo] no data <45 45–65 65–85 85–105 105–125 125–145 | 145–165 165–185 185–205 205–225 225–245 >245 |
Kote ulimwenguni, kipandauso huathiri zaidi ya asilimia 10 ya watu [31] Kule Marekani, takriban asilimia 6 ya wanaume na asilimia 18 ya wanawake hupata kipandauso kila mwaka huku wakiwa na hatari ya daima ya asilimia 18 na 43 mtawalia.[5] Barani Uropa, kipandauso huathiri asilimia 12–28 ya watu maishani mwao huku takriban asilimia 6–15 ya wanaume wazima na asilimia 14–35 ya wanawake wazima wakipata angalau tukio moja kila mwaka.[7] Kima cha kipanduso ni chini kiasi barani Asia na Afrika ikilinganishwa na nchi za Magharibi.[41][97] Kipandauso sugu hutokea kwa takriban asilimia 1.4 ya watu hadi 2.2.[98]
Takwimu hizi hutofautiana sana kwa umri: mara nyingi zaidi, kipandauso huanza kati ya umri wa miaka 15 na 24 na hutokea mara nyingi kwa watu wenye umri wa miaka 35 hadi 45.[5] Kwa watoto, takriban asilimia 1.7 ya watoto wenye umri wa miaka 7 na asilimia 3.9 kwa wale wa kati ya miaka 7 na 15 wana kipandauso, huku hali hii ikitokea mara nyingi kwa wavulana kabla ya kubalehe.[99] Wakati wa kubaleghe, kipandauso hutokea mara nyingi kwa wanawake [99] na hali hii huendelea maishani, ikitokea mara mbili zaidi kwa wanawake wazee kuliko wanaume.[100] Kipandauso bila aura hutokea mara nyingi zaidi kwa wanawake kuliko kipandauso chenye aura, ingawa aina hizi mbili hutokea kwa kiwango sawa kwa wanaume.[41]
Kwa kipindi kilichokaribia ukomohedhi mara nyingi dalili huzidi kabla ya kupunguka ukali.[100] Huku dalili zikitokomea kwa takriban thuluthi mbili ya wazee, dalili hizi hudumu kwa kati ya asilimia 3 na 10.[28]
Historia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Maelezo ya mwanzo ya yaliyozingatia kipandauso yamo kwa mafunjo ya Eber, yaliyoandikwa takriban mwaka wa 1200 BCE kwa kale za Misri[101] Kwa mwaka wa 200 BC, maandishi kutoka kwa Shule ya madaktari ya Hippocrates yalieleza aura inayohusiana na kuona inayotokea kabla ya maumivu ya kichwa na kupata nafuu kidogo kufuatia kutapika.[102]
Maelezo ya karneya pili ya Aretaeus of Cappadocia yaliainisha maumivu ya kichwa kwa aina tatu: sefalejia, sefalea na heterokrania.[103] Galen wa Pergamon alitumia neno hemikrania (nusu ya kichwa), ambapo neno kipandauso hatimaye lilikopwa.[103] Galen pia alipendekeza kuwa maumivu huanzia kwenye meninjesi na mishipa ya damu kichwani.[102]Hapo awali, kipanduso kilikuwa kimeainishwa kwa aina mbili zinazotumika hata sasa - kipandauso chenye aura(migraine ophthalmique) na kipanduso bila aura (migraine vulgaire) kwa mwaka wa 1887 na Louis Hyacinthe Thomas Mkutubi Mfaransa.[102]
Utoboaji, yaani kutoboa tundu kwa hiari kwenye fuvu la kichwa, ulifanyika hata mwaka wa 7,000 BCE.[101] Huku baadhi ya watu wakipona, wengi wao huenda walikufa kufuatia maambukizi.[104] Tendo hili liliaminika kufanya kazi kwa kupitia "kufungulia mapepo watoroke".[105] Kwa karne ya 17, William Harvey alipendekeza utoboaji tundu kama matibabu ya kipandauso.[106]
Huku majaribio mengi ya matibabu ya kipandauso yakifanyika, ni mpaka mwaka 1868 ambapo matumizi ya dutu ambazo hatimaye ziliweza kuwa bora yalianza.[102] Dutu hizi nierogoti ya kuvu ambapo dawa ya ergotamine ilitolewa kwa mwaka wa 1918.[107] Methysergideilitolewa mwaka wa 1959, na triptani ya kwanza, sumatriptan, kutolewa mwaka wa 1988.[107] Kufuatia utafiti mwafaka, dawa bora za kukinga kipandauso zilipatikana na kuthibitishwa kwa karne ya 20.[102]
Jamii na Utamaduni
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kipandauso ni chanzo kikuu cha gharama ya kimatibabu na kukosa matokeo mema kazini. Imekadiriwa kwamba kipandauso ni ugonjwa wenye gharama kali mno kati ya magonjwa mengine yanayohusika na mfumo wa neva kwa Jumuiya ya Ulaya, ukigharimu zaidi ya bilioni €27 kwa mwaka[108] Huko Marekani gharama ya moja kwa moja imekadiriwa kuwa dola bilioni 17.[109]. Takriban asilimia 10 ya gharama hii ni ya triptani.[109] Gharama isiyo ya moja kwa moja ni takriban dola bilioni 15 za Marekani, ambapo kukosa kazi ni kipengele kikuu.[109] Ubora wa wanaoweza kuendelea na kazi licha ya kuwa na kipandauso hupunguka kwa takriban theluthi moja. [108] Mathara mabaya mara nyingi pia hutokea kwa familia ya mtu.[108]
Utafiti
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Peptidi inayohusiana na jeni ya kidhibiti kalisi imethibitiwa kuhusika kwa pathojenesisi ya maumivu yanayohusiana na kipandauso.[11] Vipokezi pinzani vya peptidi inayohusiana na jeni ya kidhibiti kalisi, kama vile olcegepant na telcagepant, vimechunguzwa kwa utafiti wa vitro] na kwa utafiti wa kiafya ya matibabu ya kipandauso.[110] Mwaka wa 2011, kampuni ya Merck ilisitisha awamu ya III ya majaribio ya kimatibabu ya uchunguzi wao wa dawa ya telcagepant.[111][112]
Tanbihi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "ἡμικρανία". A Greek-English Lexicon. on Perseus
- ↑ Anderson, Kenneth; Anderson, Lois E.; Glanze, Walter D. (1994). Mosby's Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary (tol. la 4th). Mosby. uk. 998. ISBN 978-0-8151-6111-0.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society (2004). "The International Classification of Headache Disorders: 2nd edition". Cephalalgia. 24 (Suppl 1): 9–160. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2004.00653.x. PMID 14979299. as PDF Archived 31 Machi 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Piane, M (2007 Dec). "Genetics of migraine and pharmacogenomics: some considerations". The journal of headache and pain. 8 (6): 334–9. PMID 18058067.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 Bartleson JD, Cutrer FM (2010). "Migraine update. Utambuzi na matibabu". Minn Med. 93 (5): 36–41. PMID 20572569.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Lay CL, Broner SW (2009). "Migraine in women". Neurologic Clinics. 27 (2): 503–11. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2009.01.002. PMID 19289228.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Stovner LJ, Zwart JA, Hagen K, Terwindt GM, Pascual J (2006). "Epidemiology of headache in Europe". European Journal of Neurology. 13 (4): 333–45. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01184.x. PMID 16643310.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Dodick DW, Gargus JJ (2008). "Why migraines strike". Sci. Am. 299 (2): 56–63. Bibcode:2008SciAm.299b..56D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0808-56. PMID 18666680.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Bigal, ME (2008 Jun). "The prognosis of migraine". Current opinion in neurology. 21 (3): 301–8. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e328300c6f5. PMID 18451714.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Gutman, Sharon A. (2008). Quick reference neuroscience for rehabilitation professionals : the essential neurologic principles underlying rehabilitation practice (tol. la 2nd). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK. uk. 231. ISBN 9781556428005.
- ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 Gilmore, B (2011-02-01). "Treatment of acute migraine headache". American family physician. 83 (3): 271–80. PMID 21302868.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 The Headaches, Pg 232-233
- ↑ al.], ed. Jes Olesen ... [et (2006). The headaches (tol. la 3. ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 512. ISBN 9780781754002.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help) - ↑ 14.0 14.1 Rae-Grant, [edited by] D. Joanne Lynn, Herbert B. Newton, Alexander D. (2004). The 5-minute neurology consult. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 26. ISBN 9780683307238.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 Aminoff, Roger P. Simon, David A. Greenberg, Michael J. (2009). Clinical neurology (tol. la 7th ed.). New York, N.Y: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill. ku. 85–88. ISBN 9780071664332.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Buzzi, MG (2005 Oct-Dec). "Prodromes and the early phase of the migraine attack: therapeutic relevance". Functional neurology. 20 (4): 179–83. PMID 16483458.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Rossi, P (2005 Oct-Dec). "Prodromes and predictors of migraine attack". Functional neurology. 20 (4): 185–91. PMID 16483459.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Samuels, Allan H. Ropper, Martin A. (2009). Adams and Victor's principles of neurology (tol. la 9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ku. Chapter 10. ISBN 9780071499927.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Tintinalli, Judith E. (2010). Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. ku. 1116–1117. ISBN 0-07-148480-9.
- ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 The Headaches Pg.407-419
- ↑ Tepper, edited by Stewart J. Tepper, Deborah E. The Cleveland Clinic manual of headache therapy. New York: Springer. uk. 6. ISBN 9781461401780.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Bigal, ME (2010 Jul). "Migraine in the pediatric population--evolving concepts". Headache. 50 (7): 1130–43. PMID 20572878.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ al.], ed. Jes Olesen, ... [et (2006). The headaches (tol. la 3. ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 238. ISBN 9780781754002.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Dalessio, edited by Stephen D. Silberstein, Richard B. Lipton, Donald J. (2001). Wolff's headache and other head pain (tol. la 7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. uk. 122. ISBN 9780195135183.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Kaniecki, RG (2009 Jun). "Basilar-type migraine". Current pain and headache reports. 13 (3): 217–20. PMID 19457282.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ 26.0 26.1 Walton, edited by Robert P. Lisak ... ; foreword by John; na wenz. (2009). International neurology : a clinical approach. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. uk. 670. ISBN 9781405157384.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help); Explicit use of et al. in:|first=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 27.0 27.1 contributors, edited by Joel S. Glaser ; with 20 (1999). Neuro-ophthalmology (tol. la 3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 555. ISBN 9780781717298.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|last=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ 28.0 28.1 Malamut, edited by Joseph I. Sirven, Barbara L. (2008). Clinical neurology of the older adult (tol. la 2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 197. ISBN 9780781769471.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kelman L (2006). "The postdrome of the acute migraine attack". Cephalalgia. 26 (2): 214–20. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2005.01026.x. PMID 16426278.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Halpern, Audrey L.; Silberstein, Stephen D. (2005). "Ch. 9: The Migraine Attack—A Clinical Description". Katika Kaplan PW, Fisher RS (mhr.). Imitators of Epilepsy (tol. la 2nd). New York: Demos Medical. ISBN 1-888799-83-8. NBK7326.
{{cite book}}
: External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 31.0 31.1 Robbins MS, Lipton RB (2010). "The epidemiology of primary headache disorders". Semin Neurol. 30 (2): 107–19. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1249220. PMID 20352581.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Schürks, M (2012 Jan). "Genetics of migraine in the age of genome-wide association studies". The journal of headache and pain. 13 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1007/s10194-011-0399-0. PMC 3253157. PMID 22072275.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ The Headaches, Pg. 246-247
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Schürks, M. "Genetics of migraine in the age of genome-wide association studies". Tdate=2012 Jan. 13 (1): 1–9. PMID 22072275.
- ↑ .cite journal|last=de Vries|first=B|coauthors=Frants, RR; Ferrari, MD; van den Maagdenberg, AM|title=Molecular genetics of migraine.|journal=Human genetics|date=2009 Jul|volume=126|issue=1|pages=115–32|pmid=19455354}}
- ↑ Montagna, P (2008 Sep). "Migraine genetics". Expert review of neurotherapeutics. 8 (9): 1321–30. PMID journal of headache and pain 18759544he journal of headache and pain.
{{cite journal}}
: Check|pmid=
value (help); Check date values in:|date=
(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=
(help) - ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Levy D, Strassman AM, Burstein R (2009). "A critical view on the role of migraine triggers in the genesis of migraine pain". Headache. 49 (6): 953–7. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01444.x. PMID 19545256.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Martin PR (2010). "Behavioral management of migraine headache triggers: learning to cope with triggers". Curr Pain Headache Rep. 14 (3): 221–7. doi:10.1007/s11916-010-0112-z. PMID 20425190.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ MacGregor, EA (2010-10-01). "Prevention and treatment of menstrual migraine". Drugs. 70 (14): 1799–818. doi:10.2165/11538090-000000000-00000. PMID 20836574.
- ↑ Lay, CL (2009 May). "Migraine in women". Neurologic Clinics. 27 (2): 503–11. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2009.01.002. PMID 19289228.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 The Headaches Pg. 238-240
- ↑ Rockett, FC (2012 Jun). "Dietary aspects of migraine trigger factors". Nutrition reviews. 70 (6): 337–56. PMID 22646127.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Holzhammer J, Wöber C (2006). "[Alimentary trigger factors that provoke migraine and tension-type headache]". Schmerz (kwa German). 20 (2): 151–9. doi:10.1007/s00482-005-0390-2. PMID 15806385.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ Jansen SC, van Dusseldorp M, Bottema KC, Dubois AE (2003). "Intolerance to dietary biogenic amines: a review". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 91 (3): 233–40, quiz 241–2, 296. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63523-5. PMID 14533654. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2007-02-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-28.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|https://web.archive.org/web/20070226232424/http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Sun-Edelstein C, Mauskop A (2009). "Foods and supplements in the management of migraine headaches". The Clinical Journal of Pain. 25 (5): 446–52. doi:10.1097/AJP.0b013e31819a6f65. PMID 19454881.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Freeman M (2006). "Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: a literature review". J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 18 (10): 482–6. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x. PMID 16999713.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Friedman DI, De ver Dye T (2009). "Migraine and the environment". Headache. 49 (6): 941–52. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01443.x. PMID 19545255.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 48.0 48.1 The Headaches Chp. 29, Pg. 276
- ↑ Goadsby, PJ (2009 Jan). "The vascular theory of migraine--a great story wrecked by the facts". Brain : a journal of neurology. 132 (Pt 1): 6–7. PMID 19098031.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ Brennan, KC (2010 Jun). "An update on the blood vessel in migraine". Current opinion in neurology. 23 (3): 266–74. PMID 20216215.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Dodick, DW (2008 Apr). "Examining the essence of migraine--is it the blood vessel or the brain? A debate". Headache. 48 (4): 661–7. PMID 18377395.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 The Headaches, Chp. 28, pg 269-272
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Olesen, J (2009 Jul). "Origin of pain in migraine: evidence for peripheral sensitiyation". Lancet neurology. 8 (7): 679–90. PMID 19539239.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Akerman, S (2011-09-20). "Diencephalic and brainstem mechanisms in migraine". Nature reviews. Neuroscience. 12 (10): 570–84. PMID 21931334.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Shevel, E (2011 Mar). "The extracranial vascular theory of migraine--a great story confirmed by the facts". Headache. 51 (3): 409–17. PMID 21352215.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ Cousins, G (2011 Jul-Aug). "Diagnostic accuracy of the ID Migraine: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Headache. 51 (7): 1140–8. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.01916.x. PMID 21649653.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Nappi, G (2005 Sep). "Introduction to the new International Classification of Headache Disorders". The journal of headache and pain. 6 (4): 203–4. PMID 16362664.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ Negro, A (2011 Dec). "Chronic migraine: current concepts and ongoing treatments". European review for medical and pharmacological sciences. 15 (12): 1401–20. PMID 22288302.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 Davidoff, Robert A. (2002). Migraine : manifestations, pathogenesis, and management (tol. la 2nd). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. uk. 81. ISBN 9780195137057.
- ↑ Russell, G (2002). "Abdominal migraine: evidence for existence and treatment options". Paediatric drugs. 4 (1): 1–8. PMID 11817981.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Modi S, Lowder DM (2006). "Medications for migraine prophylaxis". American Family Physician. 73 (1): 72–8. PMID 16417067.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Diener HC, Limmroth V (2004). "Medication-overuse headache: a worldwide problem". Lancet Neurology. 3 (8): 475–83. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00824-5. PMID 15261608.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Fritsche, Guenther; Diener, Hans-Christoph (2002). "Medication overuse headaches – what is new?". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 1 (4): 331–8. doi:10.1517/14740338.1.4.331. PMID 12904133.
- ↑ Kaniecki R, Lucas S. (2004). "Treatment of primary headache: preventive treatment of migraine". Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Chicago: National Headache Foundation. ku. 40–52.
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 Loder, E (2012 Jun). "The 2012 AHS/AAN guidelines for prevention of episodic migraine: a summary and comparison with other recent clinical practice guidelines". Headache. 52 (6): 930–45. PMID 22671714.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Silberstein, SD (2012-04-24). "Evidence-based guideline update: pharmacologic treatment for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 78 (17): 1337–45. PMID 22529202.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Jackson JL, Kuriyama A, Hayashino Y (2012). "Botulinum toxin A for prophylactic treatment of migraine and tension headaches in adults: a meta-analysis". JAMA. 307 (16): 1736–45. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.505. PMID 22535858.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Pringsheim T, Davenport W, Mackie G, et al. Canadian Headache Society guideline for migraine prophylaxis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012 Mar;39(2 Suppl 2):S1-59. PMID 22683887
- ↑ PMID 21359919 (PubMed)
Citation will be completed automatically in a few minutes. Jump the queue or expand by hand - ↑ Linde, K; Allais, G; Brinkhaus, B; Manheimer, E; Vickers, A; White, AR (2009). Linde, Klaus (mhr.). "Acupuncture for migraine prophylaxis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) (1): CD001218. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001218.pub2. PMC 3099267. PMID 19160193.
- ↑ Chaibi, Aleksander; Tuchin, Peter J.; Russell, Michael Bjørn (2011). "Manual therapies for migraine: A systematic review". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 12 (2): 127–33. doi:10.1007/s10194-011-0296-6. PMC 3072494. PMID 21298314.
- ↑ Bianchi, A; Salomone, S; Caraci, F; Pizza, V; Bernardini, R; Damato, C (2004). "Vitamins & Hormones Volume 69". Vitamins and hormones. Vitamins & Hormones. 69: 297–312. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(04)69011-X. ISBN 978-0-12-709869-2. PMID 15196887.
{{cite journal}}
:|chapter=
ignored (help) - ↑ Rios, Juanita; Passe, Megan M. (2004). "Evidence-Based Use of Botanicals, Minerals, and Vitamins in the Prophylactic Treatment of Migraines". Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 16 (6): 251–6. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2004.tb00447.x. PMID 15264611.
- ↑ Holland, S (2012-04-24). "Evidence-based guideline update: NSAIDs and other complementary treatments for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 78 (17): 1346–53. PMID 22529203.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Nestoriuc, Yvonne; Martin, Alexandra (2007). "Efficacy of biofeedback for migraine: A meta-analysis". Pain. 128 (1–2): 111–27. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.007. PMID 17084028.
- ↑ Nestoriuc, Y; Martin, A; Rief, W; Andrasik, F (2008). "Biofeedback treatment for headache disorders: A comprehensive efficacy review". Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback. 33 (3): 125–40. doi:10.1007/s10484-008-9060-3. PMID 18726688.
- ↑ Schoenen, J; Allena, M; Magis, D (2010). "Neurostimulation therapy in intractable headaches". Handbook of clinical neurology / edited by P.J. Vinken and G.W. Bruyn. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 97: 443–50. doi:10.1016/S0072-9752(10)97037-1. ISBN 9780444521392. PMID 20816443.
- ↑ Reed, KL; Black, SB; Banta Cj, 2nd; Will, KR (2010). "Combined occipital and supraorbital neurostimulation for the treatment of chronic migraine headaches: Initial experience". Cephalalgia. 30 (3): 260–71. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01996.x. PMID 19732075.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kung, TA (2011 Jan). "Migraine surgery: a plastic surgery solution for refractory migraine headache". Plastic and reconstructive surgery. 127 (1): 181–9. doi:10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181f95a01. PMID 20871488.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Rabbie R, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ (2010). Moore, Maura (mhr.). "Ibuprofen with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 10 (10): CD008039. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008039.pub2. PMID 20927770.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Derry S, Rabbie R, Moore RA (2012). "Diclofenac with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2: CD008783. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008783.pub2. PMID 22336852.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kirthi V, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ (2010). Moore, Maura (mhr.). "Aspirin with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 4 (4): CD008041. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008041.pub2. PMID 20393963.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ (2010). Moore, Maura (mhr.). "Paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 11 (11): CD008040. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008040.pub2. PMID 21069700.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Johnston MM, Rapoport AM (2010). "Triptans for the management of migraine". Drugs. 70 (12): 1505–18. doi:10.2165/11537990-000000000-00000. PMID 20687618.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Tepper Stewart J., S. J.; Tepper, Deborah E. (2010). "Breaking the cycle of medication overuse headache". Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 77 (4): 236–42. doi:10.3949/ccjm.77a.09147. PMID 20360117.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Kelley, NE (2012 Jan). "Rescue therapy for acute migraine, part 1: triptans, dihydroergotamine, and magnesium". Headache. 52 (1): 114–28. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.02062.x. PMID 22211870.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ al.], ed. Jes Olesen, ... [et (2006). The headaches (tol. la 3. ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 516. ISBN 9780781754002.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 88.0 88.1 Morren, JA (2010 Dec). "Where is dihydroergotamine mesylate in the changing landscape of migraine therapy?". Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy. 11 (18): 3085–93. doi:10.1517/14656566.2010.533839. PMID 21080856.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Colman I; Friedman BW; Brown MD; na wenz. (2008). "Parenteral dexamethasone for acute severe migraine headache: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials for preventing recurrence". BMJ. 336 (7657): 1359–61. doi:10.1136/bmj.39566.806725.BE. PMC 2427093. PMID 18541610.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|author-separator=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Posadzki, P (2011 Jun). "Spinal manipulations for the treatment of migraine: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache. 31 (8): 964–70. doi:10.1177/0333102411405226. PMID 21511952.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 91.0 91.1 Schürks, M (2011 Sep). "Migraine and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache. 31 (12): 1301–14. doi:10.1177/0333102411415879. PMID 21803936.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Schürks, M (2009-10-27). "Migraine and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 339: b3914. PMC 2768778. PMID 19861375.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Kurth, T (2012 Jan). "Migraine and stroke: a complex association with clinical implications". Lancet neurology. 11 (1): 92–100. PMID 22172624.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Rist, PM (2011 Jun). "Migraine, migraine aura, and cervical artery dissection: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache. 31 (8): 886–96. doi:10.1177/0333102411401634. PMC 3303220. PMID 21511950.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Kurth, T (2010 Mar). "The association of migraine with ischemic stroke". Current neurology and neuroscience reports. 10 (2): 133–9. doi:10.1007/s11910-010-0098-2. PMID 20425238.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ Weinberger, J (2007 Mar). "Stroke and migraine". Current cardiology reports. 9 (1): 13–9. PMID 17362679.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ Wang SJ (2003). "Epidemiology of migraine and other types of headache in Asia". Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 3 (2): 104–8. doi:10.1007/s11910-003-0060-7. PMID 12583837.
- ↑ Natoli, JL (2010 May). "Global prevalence of chronic migraine: a systematic review". Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache. 30 (5): 599–609. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01941.x. PMID 19614702.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 99.0 99.1 Hershey, AD (2010 Feb). "Current approaches to the diagnosis and management of pediatric migraine". Lancet neurology. 9 (2): 190–204. PMID 20129168.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ↑ 100.0 100.1 Nappi, RE (2009 Jun). "Hormonal management of migraine at menopause". Menopause international. 15 (2): 82–6. PMID 19465675.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 101.0 101.1 Miller, Neil (2005). Walsh and Hoyt's clinical neuro-ophthalmology (tol. la 6th ed). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. uk. 1275. ISBN 9780781748117.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help) - ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 102.3 102.4 Borsook, David (2012). The migraine brain : imaging, structure, and function. New York: Oxford University Press. ku. 3–11. ISBN 9780199754564.
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Waldman, [edited by] Steven D. (2011). Pain management (tol. la 2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ku. 2122–2124. ISBN 9781437736038.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help);|first=
has generic name (help) - ↑ Mays, eds. Margaret Cox, Simon (2002). Human osteology : in archaeology and forensic science (tol. la Repr.). Cambridge [etc.]: Cambridge University Press. uk. 345. ISBN 9780521691468.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Colen, Chaim (2008). Neurosurgery. Colen Publishing. uk. 1. ISBN 9781935345039.
- ↑ Daniel, Britt Talley (2010). Migraine. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. uk. 101. ISBN 9781449069629.
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 Tfelt-Hansen, PC (2011 May). "One hundred years of migraine research: major clinical and scientific observations from 1910 to 2010". Headache. 51 (5): 752–78. PMID 21521208.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 108.0 108.1 108.2 Stovner, LJ (2008 Jun). "Impact of headache in Europe: a review for the Eurolight project". The journal of headache and pain. 9 (3): 139–46. PMID 18418547.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Mennini, FS (2008 Aug). "Improving care through health economics analyses: cost of illness and headache". The journal of headache and pain. 9 (4): 199–206. PMID 18604472.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Tepper SJ, Stillman MJ (2008). "Clinical and preclinical rationale for CGRP-receptor antagonists in the treatment of migraine". Headache. 48 (8): 1259–68. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2008.01214.x. PMID 18808506.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Merck & Co., Inc. (Februari 28, 2012). "SEC Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending Dec 31, 2011" (PDF). SEC. uk. 65. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2013-08-27. Iliwekwa mnamo 21 Mei 2012.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Kigezo:ClinicalTrialsGov
Marejeo
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Olesen, Jes (2006). The headaches (tol. la 3. ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781754002.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help)
Viungo vya nje
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Kipandauso katika Open Directory Project
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