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Pitio la 22:39, 7 Mei 2015

Kigezo:Maana mbili nyingine

Bakteria

Bakteria aina ya Clostridium botulinum chini ya hadubini

Uainishaji wa kisayansi

Domeni:

Bakteria

Ngazi za chini

Faili

Gram positive / haina utando wa nje

Actinobacteria (ina guanini na sitosini nyingi)
Firmicutes (ina guanini na sitosini chache)
Tenericutes (haina ganda la nje)

Gram negative / ina utando wa nje

Aquificae
Deinococcus-Thermus
Fibrobacteres–Chlorobi/Bacteroidetes (kundi la FCB)
Fusobacteria
Gemmatimonadetes
Nitrospirae
Planctomycetes–Verrucomicrobia/Chlamydiae (kundi la PVC)
Proteobacteria
Spirochaetes
Synergistetes

Isiyoainishwa

Acidobacteria
Chloroflexi
Chrysiogenetes
Cyanobacteria
Deferribacteres
Dictyoglomi
Thermodesulfobacteria
Thermotogae

Bakteria (Kigir. βακτήριον baktērion „kijiti“) vi viumbe vodogo sana aina ya vidubini. Huonekana kwa hadubini tu na kwa sababu hiyo hazikujulikana kwa karne nyingi.

Mwili wa bakteria huwa na seli moja tu. Kuna aina nyingi sana na idadi ya bakteria ni kubwa kushinda viumbe vyote vingine duniani.

Huishi kwenye ardhi na kwenye maji ziko pia hewani zinaposukumwa na upepo. Aina nyingi huishi ndani ya viumbe vikubwa zaidi. Mwanadamu huwa na bakteria nyingi ndani ya utumbo wake ambazo ni lazima kwa kumeng'enyuka kwa chakula ndani yetu. Lakini bakteria za nje ya mwili huweza kusababisha magonjwa na sehemu kubwa ya magonjwa ya kuambukizwa yametokana na bakteria.

Bakteria huzaa kwa njia ya kujigawa na kuwa bakteria mbili ambazo ni sawa na seli asilia.

Bakteria ya kawaida huwa na kipenyo cha 1 µm (mikromita 1).

Historia ya bakteriolojia

Habari zaidi: Microbiology

Bakteria ziligunduliwa mara ya kwanza na Antonie van Leeuwenhoek katika mwaka wa 1676, kwa kutumia darubini ya lensi moja ya muundo wake mwenyewe.^[1] Aliziita "animalcules" na alichapisha utafiti wake kwenye msururu wa barua kwa Shirika la Muungano wa Mfalme.^[2]^[3]^[4] Jina bacteriam lililetwa miaka mingi baadaye, na Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg katika mwaka wa 1838.^[5]

Louis Pasteurkatika mwaka wa 1859 alionyesha kuwa mchakato wa kuchachusha unasababishwa na ukuaji wa vijiumbe, na kwamba ukuaji huu si wa kizazi cha kujianzia. (Hamira na kuvu, ambazo kwa kawaida zinahusishwa na uchachushaji, si bakteria, ila ukungu.) Pamoja na mwenzake, Robert Koch, Pasteur alikuwa wa kwanza kuitetea nadharia ya kijidudu ya ugonjwa.^[6] Robert Koch alikuwa mwanzilishi wa taaluma ya uuguzi wa mikrobiolojia na alishughulikia kipindupindu, kimeta na kifua kikuu. Katika utafiti wake wa kifua kikuu, Koch hatimaye alithibitisha nadharia ya kijidudu, ambayo ilimfanya atunukiwe Tuzo la Nobel mwaka wa 1905.^[7] Katika madai yake, Koch aliweka vigezo vya kutathmini kama kiumbe ndicho husababisha ugonjwa, na madai haya yanatumika mpaka leo hii.^[8]

Ingawa katika karne ya kumi na tisa ilijulikana kwamba bakteria ndizo zilikuwa chanzo cha magonjwa mengi, hakuna matibabu yoyote ya viua-bakteria yaliyopatikana.^[9] Katika mwaka wa 1910, Paul Ehrlich alitengeneza kiua vijasumu cha kwanza, kwa kubadilisha rangi ambazo kwa kuchagua zilitia mawaa Treponema pallidum- spirokaeti ambayo husababisha kaswende-katika mchanganyiko wa ambao uliua kisababishi magonjwa.^[10] Ehrlich alikuwa ametuzwa Tuzo la Nobel mwaka 1908 kwa kazi yake kuhusu elimu ya kingamaradhi, na alianzisha matumizi ya madoa ili kuchunguza na kubaini bakteria, na kazi yake ilijikita kwenye misingi ya doa la Gram na doa la Ziehl-Neelsen.^[11]

Mafanikio makubwa katika utafiti wa bakteria yalikuwa kutambuliwa kwa Carl Woese mwaka 1977 kwamba akea zilishuka kutokana na mabadiliko tofauti kutoka yale ya bakteria.^[12] Uanishaji huu mpya wa jamii ya filojenetiki ulikitwa kwenye misingi ya kufululizwa kwa ribosomu RNA 16S, na ukagawa prokariyoti katika makundi mawili yenye mageuko tofauti, kama mojawapo ya sehemu ya mifumo ya vikoa vitatu.^[13]

Asili na mabadiliko ya awali

Further information: Timeline of evolution

Jadi ya bakteria wa kisasa ilikuwa vijiumbe vya seli moja ambavyo ndivyo vilikuwa viumbe wa kwanza kuwahi kuishi duniani, takriban miaka bilioni 4 iliyopita. Karibu miaka bilioni 3, viumbe wote walikuwa hawawezi kuonekana kwa macho, na bakteria na akea walikuwa aina kubwa ya viumbe waliokuwa na uhai duniani.^[14]^[15] Ingawa visukusuku vya bakteria vipo, kama vile stromatoliti, ukosefu wao wa umbo maalum unawazuia kutumiwa katika uchunguza wa historia ya mabadiliko ya bakteria, au kueleza tarehe ya asili ya spishi ya bakteria maalum. Hata hivyo, mpangilio wa jeni unaweza kutumiwa katika kuelezea upya filojeni ya bakteria, na utafiti huo unaonyesha kuwa bakteria kwanza watokana na nasaba ya akea / yukariyoti.^[16] Huenda asili ya jadi ya kwanza ya bakteria wa hivi karibuni na akea ilikuwa haipathamofili iliyoishi karibi miaka bilioni 2.5 hadi miaka bilioni 3.2 iliyopita. ^[17]^[18]

Aidha bakteria walishiriki katika mgeuko wa pili mkubwa, wa akea na yukariyoti. Hapa, yukariyoti walitokana na bakteria wa kale na kuwa na uhusiano uliowafaidi wote huku seli za kwanza za yukariyoti, ambazo huenda zilihusiana na Akea.^[19]^[20] Hii ilihusu kumezwa kwa seli za proto-yukariyoti na alfa-proteobakteria kwa manufaa ya wote na kuunda ama mitokondria au s haidrojenisomi, ambazo bado zinapatikana kwenye yukariyoti zote (wakati mwingine katika hali iliyodhaifu sana, kwa mfano katika protozoa ya "amitokondrial" ya kale). Baadaye, baadhi ya yukariyoti ambazo tayari zilikuwa na mitokondria pia zilimeza viumbe ambavyo vilikuwa kama cyanobakterial. Hii ilisababisha kuundwa kwa kloroplasti katika miani na mimea. Aidha, kuna baadhi ya miani ambayo ilichimbuka baadaye kutoka kwa matukio ya hali ya kutegemeana. Hapa, yukariyoti zilimeza yukariyoti ya mwani ambayo baadaye ilinawiri na hata kuwa plastidi ya "kizazi cha pili".^[21]^[22] Hii inajulikana kama inajulikana hali ya kutegeemana ya daraja la pili.

Mofolojia

Habari zaidi: Bacterial cellular morphologies

Bakteria huwa na maumbo na ukubwa tofauti tofauti, unaoitwa mofolojia. Seli za bakteria ni karibu sudusi moja 1 / 10 ya seli za yukariyoti na kawaida huwa na urefu wa mikromita 0.5-5.0 . Hata hivyo, spishi chache kama vile Thiomargarita namibiensis na Epulopiscium fishelsoni huwa na urefu wa milimita nusu ya muda mrefu na zinaweza kuonekana kwa macho bila darubini.^[23] Kati ya bakteria ambazo ni ndogo ni zile za jenasi ya Mykoplasma, ambazo zina kipimo cha mikromita 0.3 tu, udogo wao unalingana virusi vilivyovikubwa zaidi.^[24] Baadhi ya bakteria zinaweza kuwa hata ndogo zaidi, lakini bakteria hizi ndogo zaidi hazijatafitiwa vizuri.^[25]

Spishi za bakteria wengi huwa ama duara-dufu,waitwao koksi (umoja kokusi, Kutoka kwa neno la kigirikiκόκκος - kókkos, nafaka, mbegu) au umbo la fimbo, waitwao bacilli (umoja Bacillus, kutoka neno la Kilatini baculus , fimbo). Kurefuka huhusishwa na kuogelea.^[26] Baadhi ya bakteria wenye umbo la fimbo, waitwao vibrio, huwa na mviringo kidogo au umbo la koma; na wengine, wanaweza kuwa na umbo la pia, waitwao spirilla, au kuzungushwa kwa pamoja, waitwao spirokiti. Idadi ndogo ya spishi wana umbo la pembe nne au umbo hata umbo la sanduku.^[27] Hivi majuzi, bakteria waligunduliwa kwenye ndani ya sahani ya dunia ambao na kuwa na urefu kama wa fimbo na sehemu ya pembeni yenye umbo la nyota. Eneo lao kubwa ukilinganishwa na uwiano wa kiasi cha mofolojia hii linaweza kufaidi hawa bakteria katika mazingira yaliyo na madini chache.^[28] Maumbo haya tofauti ni kutokana na ukingo wa ukuta wa seli za bakteria na kuamua na bakteria na mfupa wa saitoplazimu, na ni muhimu kwa sababu unaweza kuathiri uwezo wa bakteria wa kupata virutubisho au madini, kujigandisha kwenye kingo, kuogelea kwa vitu viwevu na kujiepusha na kuwindwa.^[29]^[30]

Spishi nyingi za bakteria zinaishi kama seli moja tu, wengine huwa na ruwaza fulani ya muungano: Neisseria huunda diploidi (jozi), Streptococcus huunda minyororo, na Staphylococcus hujiunga kwenye kikundi cha "rundo la zabibu". Aidha bakteria zinaweza kurufushwa kuunda filamenti, kwa mfano Aktinobakteria. Mara nyingi bakteria za nyuzi huzungukwa na uo ambao una chembechembe nyingi za kibinafsi. Aina fulani, kama vile spishi za jenasi ya Nocardia, huweza hata kuunda, filamenti za kushangaza zenye matagaa, zinazofanana na vimelea vya mycelia.^[31]

Mara nyingi bakteria hujiunganisha kwenye sehemu zingine ili kuunda mikusanyiko mikubwa iitwayo biofilamu au mikeka ya bakteria. Filamu hizi zinaweza kuwa kati mikromita chache kwa unene hadi nusu mita kwa kina, na zinaweza kuwa na spishi nyingi za bakteria, protisti na akea. Bakteria wanaoishi katika biofilamu huwa na mpangilio mgumu wa seli na vipengele vya nje ya seli, na kuunda maumbo ya daraja la pili kama vile mikrokoloni, umbo ambalo huwa njia nyingi kuwezesha upitishaji wa virutubisho.^[32]^[33] Katika mazingira ya kawaida, kama vile udongo au kwenye mimea, bakteria wengi huunganishwa kwenye kingo katika bio-filamu.^[34] Bio-filamu ni muhimu pia katika uuguzi, kwa sababu mara nyingi maumbo haya yanapatikana kwenye magonjwa mabaya ya kuambukizwa au katika maambukizi ya vifaa vya matibabu ambavyo vimewekwa mwilini, na bakteria wanaolindwa ndani ya bio-filamu ni vigumu sana kuwaua kuliko bakteria waliyo pekee.^[35]

Wakati mwingine mabadiliko mengine makubwa ya kimofolojia yanaweza kutokea. Kwa mfano, wakinyimwa amino asidi, miksoobakteria wanaweza kugundua seli ambazo zimewazingira hali iitwayo hisi ya kikundi, hujumuika pamoja, na hukusanyika kuunda maumbo marefu ambayo yana urefu unaoweza kufika mikromita 500 na yenye takriban seli za bakteria 100,000.^[36] Katika maumbo haya, bakteria hutekeleza majukumu tofauti, aina hii ya ushirikiano mfano rahisi wa ushirika wa seli nyingi. Kwa mfano, karibu seli moja kwa kila seli 10 huhamia sehemu ya juu ya maumbo haya na huwa katika hali ya utulivu iitwayo "myxospores", ambayo inauwezo wa kustahimili ukavu na hali zingine mbaya zaidi za mazingira kinyume na ilivyo seli zingine.^[37]

Muundo wa seli

Further information: Bacterial cell structure

Miundo ya ndani ya seli

Seli ya bakteria imezungukwa na utando wa lipidi, au utando wa seli, ambao huifunika na pia kuikinga dhidi kushikilia virutubisho, s protini na sehemu nyingine muhimu za saitoplazimu ndani ya seli. Kwa kuwa hizi seli ni prokariyoti, bakteria mara nyingi huwa hazina oganeli kwenye utando katika saitoplazimu yao, kwa hivyo, huwa na sehemu chache zilizokubwa ndani ya seli. Kwa sababu hiyo hawana kiini, mitokondria, kloroplast na oganeli zingine ambazo zinapatikana katika seli za yukariyoti, kama vile sehemu za Golgi na retikilamu ya endoplazimu.^[38] Wakati fulani bakteria walioenekana kama mifuko tu ya saitoplazimu, lakini vitu kama vile mfupa-seli wa prokariyoti,^[39]^[40] na ujanibishaji wa protini katika maeneo maalum ndani ya saitoplazimu ^[41] umedhihirisha viwango vya kuendelea. Vijisehemu hivi vya seli vimekuja kujulikana kama "maumbo ya hali ya juu ya bakteria".^[42]

Vijisehemu vidogo kama vile kaboksisomu^[43] vinadhihisha kiwango kingine cha mpangilio, ambavyo ni sehemu zilizo ndani ya bakteria ambazo zimezungukwa na shanga za polihedra ya protini, badala ya utando wa lipidi.^[44] "Oganeli hizi za polihedra" hujikusanya na kugawa umetaboli wa bakteria katika vyumba, kazi ambayo hutekelezwa na oganeli zinazopatikana kwenye utando kwenye yukariyoti.^[45]^[46]

Mifanyiko mingi ya kibayokemikali, kama vile kualisha nguvu, hutokana na tofauti za viwango vya chumvi kupitia kwa utando, sifa ambayo pia hupatikana katika betri ya. Kukosekana kwa jumla kwa utando wa ndani kwenye bakteria unamaanisha kwamba mifanyiko kama vile usafiri wa elektroni hutokea kwenye utando baina ya saitoplazimu na nafasi kati ya periplazimu.^[47] Hata hivyo, katika bakteria wengi wanaotengeneza chakula kutoka kwa mwanga utando wa plazimu huwa umekunjwa sana na hujaza seli na safu ya utando wa kukusanya mwanga.^[48] Utandu huu wa kukusanya mwanga unaweza hata kuunda maumbo yaliyofunikwa na lipidi yaitwayo klorosomu katika bakteria za kijani za salfa.^[49] Protini zingine huleta virutubisho kupitia kwa utando wa seli, au kutoa molekiuli ambazo hazihitajiki kutoka kwa saitoplazimu.

[[File:Carboxysome 3 images.png|thumb|left|450px|Karboksisomu ni protini-iliyoambatanishwa viungovya bakteria. Upande wa kushoto juu ni picha ya darubini ya elektroni ya karboksisomu katika Halothiobacillus neapolitanus , chini ni picha safi ya karboksisomu. Katika upande wa kulia ni mfano wa muundo wao. Viwango vya kupima ni 100 nm Hitilafu ya kutaja: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Kiini cha bakteria kina kromosomu yenye protini na RNA. Planktomaisiti zina upekee katika kukosekana kwa jumla kwa utando wa ndani katika bakteria, kwa sababu zina utando unaozunguka kiini chao na huwa na maumbo mengine ya seli yenye utando.^[50] Kama ilivyo kwa viumbe wote wenye uhai, bakteria huwa na ribosome kwa ajili ya kutengeneza protini, lakini maumbo ya ribosome wa bakteria ni tofauti ikilinganishwa na wa yukariyoti na Akea.^[51]

Baadhi ya bakteria hutengeneza chembechembe ndani ya seli za kuhifadhi virutubisho, kama vile glikojeni, ^[52]polifosfeti, ^[53]salfa ^[54] au polihaidroksyalkanoeti.^[55] Chembechembe hizi huwezesha bakteria kuhifadhi misombo kwa ajili ya matumizi ya baadaye. Baadhi ya spishi za bakteria, kama vile zile za Sayanobacteria wa kifotosinthetiki, hutengeneza vilengelenge vya gesi vya ndani, ambavyo huvitumia kuwawezesha kuelea - na kuwaruhusu kuogolea juu na chini katika rusu za maji zenye mwanga na virutubisho tofauti.^[56]

Miundo ya nje ya seli

Further information: Cell envelope

Karibu na nje ya utando wa seli kuna ukuta wa seli wa bakteria. kuta za seli za bakteria zimetengenezwa na peptidoglaikani (ambayo awali iliitwa murein), ambayo hutokana na mfululizo wa polisakaraidi zilizounganishwa na peptide isiyo ya kawaida yenye amino asidi ya D.^[57] Kuta za seli za bakteria hutofautiana na kuta za mmea na kuvu, ambao hutengenezwa kutokana na selulosi na chitini, mtawalia.^[58] Ukuta wa seli ya bakteria pia ni tofauti na ule wa Akea, ambao hauna peptidoglaikani. Ukuta wa seli ni muhimu katika maisha ya bakteria wengi, na antibiotiki ya penicillin anaweza kuua bakteria kwa kuzuia hatua moja katika matumizi ya peptidoglaikani.^[58]

Kuna aina mbili kuu za kuta za seli katika bakteria, ziitwazo Gramu-chanya na Gramu-hasi. Majina haya yanatokana na athari ya seli kwa waa la Gram,utafiti ambao ulitumiwa kwa muda mrefu katika kuainisha spishi za bakteria.^[59]

Bakteria za Gram-chanya zina ukuta wa seli mnene ambao una rusu nyingi za peptidoglaikani na asidi ya teikoiki. Kinyume na matarajio, bakteria wa Gramu-hasi wana ukuta mwembamba uliyo na rusu chache za peptidoglaikani iliyozungukwa na utando wa pili wa lipidi wenyelipopolisakaride na lipoprotini. Bakteria wengi wana ukuta wa seli wa Gramu-hasi, na Fimikuti tu na Aktinobakteria ambao(asilia walijulikana kama bakteria wa G + C ya chini na G + C ya juu Gramu-chanya, mtawalia) huwa na mpangilio wa Gramu-chanya mbadala.^[60] Utofauti huu katika miundo unaweza kuleta tofauti katika kuathirika kwa antibiotiki, kwa mfano, vankomisin inaweza tu kuua bakteria wa Gram-chanya na hushindwa kuua pathojeni za Gram-hasi, kama vile Haemophilus influenzae au Pseudomonas aeruginosa. ^[61]

Katika bakteria wengi rusu ya S ya molekiuli za protini zilizounganishwa pamoja hufunika nje ya ukuta wa seli.^[62] Rusu hii hukinga seli dhidi ya athari za kikemikali na zingine na inaweza kuzuia kuenea kwamakromolekiula. Rusu za S- zina kazi mbalimbali lakini ambazo hazieleweki vizuri, lakini inajulikana kwamba hufanya kazi kama sumu kali katika Campylobacter na zina vimeng'enya katika stearothermophilus Bacillus. ^[63]

Mchoro wa elektroni za helikobakta pailori elektroni, unaoonyesha flajela nyingi kwenye seli

Flajela ni maumbo magumu yenye protini, yana kipenyo cha takriban nanomita 20 Mita huwa na urefu wa hadi mikromita 20, ambazo hutumika kuwezesha usafiri wa ufanisi. Flajela huendeshwa kutokana na nguvu zinazozalishwa kupitia kwa ubadilishanaji wa Ionchini ya mwinamo wa elektrokemikali kupitia kwa utando wa seli.^[64]

Fimbriae ni nyuzi nyororo za protini, zenye kipenyo cha nonimita 20-10 tu na urefu wa mikromita kadhaa. Huwa wamesambaa kwenye sehemu za sseli, na hufanana na nywele laini zinapoonwa kupitia kwa hadubini ya elektroni. Inaaminika kuwa Fimbriae huhusika katika kuunganisha vitu yabisi kwenye sehemu zingine au katika seli zingine na ni muhimu katika kutengeneza sumu kali ya pathojeni fulani za bakteria.^[65] Pili (kwa umoja pilus) ni viambatisho vya seli, kubwa kidogo kuliko fimbriae, ambavyo vinaweza kuhamisha vitu vya jenetiki baina ya seli za bakteria katika mchakato uitwao muungano (tazama jenetiki ya bakteria, hapa chini).^[66]

Kapsuli au rusu za slimi zinazotengenezwa na bakteria wengi kuzingira seli zao, na hutofautiana kwa maumbo na miundo: kuanzia rusu ya slimu isiyo na mpangilio ya ya nje ya polima ya seli, na yenye muundo bainishi wa kapsuli au glaikokaliksi. Maumbo haya yanaweza kulinda seli dhidi ya kumezwa na seli za yukariyoti, kama vile makrofeji.^[67] Pia wanaweza kufanya kazi kama Antijeni na kushirikishwa katika utambuzi wa seli, kadhalika kuwezesha katika kuunganisha na na kutengenza bio-filamu.^[68]

Kuleta pamoja hii miundo au maumbo ya seli kunategemea mifumo ya utoaji wa ugiligili wa bakteria. Uhamisho wa protini kutoka kwa saitoplazimu hadi kwa periplazimu au katika mazingira yaliyo karibu na seli. Mifumo ya aina nyingi ya utoaji ugiligili inajulikana na mara nyingi miundo hii ni muhimu kwa ajili ya pathojeni za sumu kali, kwa hiyo hutafitiwa kwa kina.^[69]

Endospora

Further information: Endospores

Baadhi ya nasaba ya bakteria wa Gram-chanaya, kama vile Bacillus, Clostridium, Sporohalobacter, Anaerobacter na Heliobacterium, zinaweza kutengeneza maumbo yaliyotulia yenye uwezo kustahimili yaitwayo endospora.^[70] Karibu katika visa vyote, endospora moja hutengenezwa na huu siyo mchakato wa uzazi, ingawa Anaerobacter wanaweza kutengeneza endospora kwenye seli moja.^[71] Endospora huwa na kitovu muhimu cha satoplazimu chenye DNA na ribosomu iliyozungukwa na rusu ya gamba na kulindwa na ngozi ngumu isiyopenyeka.

Endospora haina umetaboli usiyoweza kuonekana nainaweza kustahimmili hali mbaya ya kimwili na kikemikali, kama vile viwango vya juu vya mwanga wa miale ya jua, mionzi ya gamma, sabuni za maji, vipukusi, joto, kuzizima, shinikizo na ukavu.^[72] Katika hali hii iliyotulia, viumbe hawa wanaweza kusalia na uwezo wa kujitegemea kwa mamilioni ya miaka,^[73]^[74] na endospora huwezesha bakteria hata kushi kwenye ombwe tupu na mionzi ya anga.^[75] Aidha, bakteria ambao hutengeneza endospora wanaweza kusababisha ugonjwa kwa mfano, unaweza kupata kimeta kwa kuvuta hewa yenye endospora za Bacillus anthracis, na uchafuzi wa vindnda vya ndani na endospora za Clostridium tetani husababisha pepopunda.^[76]

Umetaboli

Further information: Microbial metabolism

Bakteria huonyesha aina mbalimbali za umetaboli.^[77] Sifa za kundi la bakteria kijadi zimetumika katika kuainisha jamii zao, lakini aghalabu sifa hizi hazioani na uainishaji wa kisasa wa jeni.^[78] Umetaboli wa bakteria huainishwa katika makundi ya lishe kwa misingi ya vigezo vitatu vikuu: aina ya nishati inayotumika katika kukua, chanzo cha kaboni, na nyenzo za elektroni zinazotumika kwa ajili ya ukuaji. Kigezo kingine cha ziada cha vidubini vinavyopumua ni vinasa elektronivinavyotumika katika uzalishaji wa nguvu kwa kutumia oksijeni au bila oksijeni.^[79]

Aina za lishe katika umetaboli wa bakteria
Aina ya lishe	Chanzo cha nguvu	Chanzo cha kaboni	Mifano
Fototrofu	Mwanga wa jua	Misombo ya kaboni (fotoheterotrofu) au uongezaji wa kaboni (fotoautotrofu)	Cyanobakteria, Bakteria wa kijani wa salfa, Klorofleksi, au bakteria wa zambarau
Lithotrofu	Iso-Misombo	Misombo ya kikaboni (lithoheterotrofu) au uongezaji wa kaboni (lithoautotrofu)	Thamodesalfobakteria, Hydrogenophilaceae, au Nitrospirae
Oganotrofi	Misombo ya kaboni	Misombo kaboni (kemoheterotrofi) au uongezaji wa kaboni (kemoautotrofi)	Bacillus, Clostridium au Enterobacteriaceae

Umetaboli wa kaboni katika bakteria huwa aidha pale ambapo misombo ya kaboni kiheterotrofiki, ambapo misombo kikaboni hutumiwa kama vyanzo vya kaboni, au kiototrofiki, kumaanisha kamba sseli ya kaboni hutokana na uongezaji wa gesi ya kaboni yenye oksijeni. Bakteria wa heterotrofiki ni pamoja na aina ya vimelea. Mmfano mzuri wa bakteria wa ototrofiki fototrofiki siyano-bakteria, bakteria wa salfa ya kijani na baadhi wa bakteria wa zambarau, lakini pia spishi nyingi za aina ya kemolithotrofiki, kama vile wale bakteria wa kuongeza naitrojeni ama wa kuongeza oksijeni katika salfa.^[80] Umetaboli wa nishati ya bakteria ama huwa umejikita katika ototrofi, utumiaji wa mwanga kupitia kwa usanisinuru, au kupitia kwa kemotrofi, utumiaji wa dutu za kemikali kuzalisha vyakula, ambayo mara nyingi hutengenzwa kwa gharama ya oksijeni au vipokea elektroni mbadala (mpumuo wa erobiki / anerobiki).

Filamenti sinobakteria ya kuzalisha chakula kutoka kwa mwanga

Hatimaye, bakteria zimegawanyika kama lithotrof ambazo hutumia vitoa elektroni vya isokaboni na oganotrofu ambazo hutumia misombo ya kikaboni kama vitoa elektroni. Vijiumbe vya kemotropiki hutumia vitoa elektroni husika katika kuhifadhi nguvu (kwa mpumuo wa aerobiki/uchachushaji wa anerobiki) na mifanyiko mingine ya biosinthetiki (kwa mfano,kuongezea gesi ya kaboni dioksidi), navyo viumbe vya fototropiki huzitumia tu kwa madhumuni ya biosinthetiki. Viumbe vipumuzi hutumia misombo ya kemikali kama kiini cha nishati kwa kuchukua elektroni kutoka kwa substreti ilopunguzwa na kuzihamisha hadi kwenye taminali ya kukubali elektroni katika mmenyuko wa aina ya redoksi. Mmenyuko huu husababisha nishati kutolewa inayoweza kutumika kwa kumeng'enya ATP na kuendesha umetaboli. Katika viumbe vya erobiki, oksijeni hutumiwa kama kikubalio cha elektroni. Katika viumbe vya anaerobic misombo ya isokaboni nyingine kama vile, naitratisalfeti au kaboni dioksaidi hutumika kama vikubalio vya elektroni. Hii hupelekea michakato muhimu ya kiikoloji ya di-naitrifikashon kupunguza kwa salfeti na asetojenesis kwa mtiririko huo.

Hali nyingine ya kimaisha ya kemotrofs katika hali ya kukosekana kwa vikubalio vya elektroni inayowezekana ni kuchachua(famenteshon), ambapo elektroni zilizochukuliwa kutoka sabstreti iliyo punguzwa huhamishiwa hadi kwenye substreti za kati zilizo oksidaiziwa kuzalisha bidhaa zilizo chachuka (mfano laktate , ethanol , hidrojeni na }asidi ya butiriki). Kuchachuka kwa wezekana, kwa sababu kiwango cha nishati kilichom kwenye sabstreti ni kikubwa kuliko kile cha mazao, na hii hufanya viumbe kusinthesise ATP na kufanyika kwa metaboli zao.^[81]^[82]

Michakato hii ni muhimu pia katika baiolojia kwa mujibu wa uchafuzi wa mazingira , kwa mfano, bakteria za kupunguza salfeti huwajibika kwa kiasi kikubwa katika uzalishaji wa aina mbali mbali za sumu aina ya zebaki ( methil- na daimethilzebaki ) katika mazingira. Anaerobu zisizopumua hutumia uchachuaji kuzalisha nishati na nguvu wa kupunguza, kutengeneza bidhaa za metaboli (kama vile ethanol katika utengezaji wa pombe) kama bidhaa taka. Anaerobu aina ya Fakaltative zinanaweza kubadili kati ya kuchachua na ukomo kubalifu wa elektronitofauti kutegemeana na hali ya mazingira ambayo wao hupatikana.

Bakteria aina ya lithotrofiki hutumia misombo isokaboni kama chanzo cha nishati. Isokaboni fadhili za elektroni za kawaida ni hidrojeni,kaboni monoksidi, amonia (inayopelekea naitrifikashion), chuma na ayoni zingine za metali zilopungukiwa, na misombo kadhaa zilizopunguzwa za sulfuri. Mara nyingi gesi ya methane inaweza kutumika na bakteria aina ya methanotrof kama kiini cha elektroni na chakula katika kunaboli kwa kaboni.^[83] Katika aerobik fototrofi na kemolithotrofi, oksijeni hutumiwa kama kikomo kubalifu cha elektroni, na huku katika hali ya anaerobik, misombo isokaboni hutumika badala yake. Viumbe vingi aina ya Lithotrofiki ni ototrofiki, navyo viumbe aina ya oganatrofiki ni heterotrofiki.

Mbali na kupachika kaboni dioksidi katika usanisinuru, baadhi ya bakteria pia hupachika gesi ya naitrojeni (upachikaji wa naitrojeni) kutumia enzaimu naitrojeni. Tabia hii muhimu inayoambatana na mazingira inaweza kupatikana katika bakteria wa metaboli karibu wa aina yote waliotajwa hapo mbeleni, lakini si kwa ujumlla.^[84]

Ukuaji na Uzazi

Further information: Bacterial growth

Kinyume na viumbe vyenye seli mingi, kuongezeka kwa ukubwa wa bakteria (ukuaji wa seli) na uzalishi kwa ugawi wa seli zinahusishwa haswa na viumbe vyenye seli moja. Bakteria hukua hadi kiasi fulani na kisha kuzaa kupitia kwa urudufuwa fishoni ambayo ni aina ya uzazi usio wa kingono.^[85] Katika hali ya timilifu, bakteria zinaweza kukua na kugawanya sana kwa haraka, na idadi yao kufikia mara mbili kila baada ya dakika 9.8.^[86] Katika mgawanyiko wa seli, seli mbili zenye kufanana clone ni zinazozalishwa. Baadhi ya bakteria, wakati bado zinazalisha bila kutumia ngono, hutengeza miundo ya uzazi ili kusaidia kugawa seli mpya zilizoundwa. Mifano ni pamoja na kutengezwa kwa mwili wa malezi wa matunda na Myxobakteria na utengezaji wa hypha angani na Streptomyces au kuunganika. Budding huhusisha seli inayojumuisha kivimbe kinachojitenga na kisha kuutoa seli mpya.

[[File:E.-coli-growth.gif|thumb|left|Koloni ya Escherichia coli Hitilafu ya kutaja: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

Mbinu nyingi za maabara za kukuza bakteria hutumiakiasi kikubwa cha virutubisho kuzalisha kiasi kikubwa cha seli kwa bei nafuu na kwa haraka. Hata hivyo, katika mazingira ya asilia, rutuba ni adimu na kwa hivyo ina maana kuwa bakteria haziwezi kuendelea kuzaliana kwa muda usiojulikana. Kuadimika kwa virutubishi imesababisha mageuzi ya ukuaji wa mikakati mbalimbali (angalia r/K nadharia ya uteuzi ). Baadhi ya viumbe vinaweza kukua kwa haraka sana wakati virutubisho vipatikanapo, kama vile ukuaji wa mwani (na sainobaktera) ambazo mara nyingi hutokea katika maziwa wakati wa msimu wa joto.^[87] Vijiumbe vingine hukabiliana na mazingira mbaya, kama vile uzalishaji wa antibiotiki nyingi na Streptomaises ili kuzuia ukuaji wa vijiumbe shindani.^[88] Katika maumbile, viumbe vingi huishi katika jamii (mfano bio-filamu) ambayo inaweza kuruhusu kuongezeka kwa ugavi wa virutubisho na ulinzi kutoka mazingira finyu.^[34] Mahusiano haya yananaweza kuwa muhimu kwa ukuaji wa viumbe fulani au kundi la viumbe (sintrofi).^[89]

Ukuaji wa bakteria hufuata awamu tatu. Wakati idadi ya bakteria huingia kwanza katika mazingira yenye idadi kubwa ya virutubisho inayoruhusu ukuaji, chembechembe hujiselehi na mazingira yao mapya. Awamu ya kwanza ya ukuaji wa uchumi ni awamu timu, ni kipindi cha kukua polepole wakati seli zinazoea kuishi katika mazingara yenye virutubishi vingi na kujitayarisha kwa ukuaji wa haraka. Awamu ya timu ina viwango vya juu vya mmeng'enyo wa vyakula, kwani protini muhimu kwa ukuaji wa haraka zinazalishwa.^[90] Awamu ya pili ya ukuaji hujulikana kama awamu ya logarithimu (awamu ya logi ), pia inajulikana kama awamu kielelezo. Awamu hii ina ukuaji wakielel ezo wa haraka. Kiwango cha ukuaji cha seli katika awamu hii inajulikana kama kiwango cha ukuaji (k) , na muda seli zinachukua kuongezeka mara mbili inajulikana kama muda wa kizazi (g ). Wakati wa awamu logi, virutubishi humetabolaiziwa kwa kasi sana hadi kirutubisho kimoja kuisha na kuwa kikwazo cha ukuaji. Awamu ya mwisho ya ukuaji ni awamu simamu na husababishwa na virutubisho vilivyomalizika. Seli hupunguza shughuli zao za metaboli na hujitosheleza na protini zisizo-muhimu kwenye chembechembe. Awamu simamu ni kipindi cha mpito kutoka ukuaji wa haraka kwa hali finyu ya na witikio na kuna ongezeko kwa uelekezi wa jeni zinazohusika katika kutengeneza DNA ,metaboli wa vito-oksidishaji na usafirishaji wa madini.^[91]

Jenetiki

Further information: Plasmid, Genome

Bakteria wengi huwa na kromosomu moja ya mviringo na ukubwa kutoka misingi jozi 160,000 katika bakteria ya endosimbiotik Candidatus Carsonella ruddii ,^[92] hadi misingi jozi 12,200,000 katika bakteria zilizo na makao kwenye Sorangium cellulosum .^[93] Spirochaete za jenasi Borrelia ni mojawapo wa bakteria ya kipekee katika utaratibu huu, huku bakteria kama vile Borrelia burgdorferi , inayosababisha ugonjwa wa lyme,ikiwa na kromosumu moja kwenye laini. Jeni katika jinomu za bakteria kawaida huwa kijikamba kimoja kiendelezi cha DNA na ingawa kuna aina mbalimbali za introni zinazopatikana kwenye bakteria, ni nadra ikilinganishwa na ukariotes.^[94]

Bakteria pia zaweza kuwa na plasmids ambazo ni DNA ndogo zenye kromosumu za ziada zinazoweza kuwa na jeni zenye kupinga antibiotiki au virusi[[]].

Bakteria, kama viumbe hukuzana bila ngono, hurithi nakala za jeni za kufanana za wazazi wao (yaani, ni klonal). Hata hivyo, bakteria zote zaweza kubadilika na uteuzi juu ya mabadiliko ya maumbile nyenzo katika DNA zao inayosababishwa na kuja pamoja kwa maumbile au miuteshion. Miuteshions hutotokana na makosa yaliyotokana wakati DNA inapo jiiga au kutokana na kujieka wazi kwa visababishaji vya tarasani. Viwango vya muteshion hutofautiana sana kati ya aina tofauti ya bakteria na hata miongoni mwa kloni mbalimbali za bakteria aina moja.^[95] Mabadiliko ya kimaumbile katika jinomu za bakteria huja aidha kutokana na muteshion za nadra au "muteshion kutokana na hali finyu", ambapo jeni zinazohusika haswa katika michakato kadhaa za kudumisha ukuaji huongeza kiwango cha muteshion.^[96]

Baadhi ya bakteria pia kuhamisha nyenzo za maumbile miongoni mwa seli. Hii inaweza kutokea kwa njia tatu kuu. Kwanza, bakteria inaweza kuchukua DNA za eksojenas kutoka katika mazingira yao, katika mchakato huitwao mabadiliko. Jeni pia zaweza kusafirishwa kwa wa transdakshion wakati wa mkungamanisho wa bakteriafej huingiza DNA za kigeni kwenye kromosomu. Njia ya tatu ya kuhamisha jeni ni kukonjugati kwa bakteria ambapo DNA huhamishwa kwa njia ya moja kwa moja baina ya chembechembe. Njia hii ya kupatikana kwa jeni kutoka bakteria zingine au mazingira inajulikana kama uhamisho wa mlalo wa jeni na inaweza kuwa ya kawaida katika hali ya kawaida.^[97] Uhamisho wa jeni ni muhimu katika upinzani dhidi ya antibiotiki kwani huruhusu uhamisho wa haraka wa jeni pinzani kati miongoni mwa pathojeni.^[98]

Bakteriofej

Bakteriofej ni virusi ambavyo hubadilisha DNA ya bakteria.Kuna aina nyingi za bakteriofej , baadhi yao huambukiza tu na kula bakteria ambao ni wenyeji wao, wakati zingine huingiza katika bakteria kromosomu. Bakteriofej inaweza kuwa na jeni za kuchangia kwenye fenotaipu ya mwenyeji wake: kwa mfano, katika uendelezaji wa Escherichia coli O157: H7 na Clostridium botulinum , jeni sumu katika jumuisho ya fej zilibatilisha bakteria zisizo na madhara asilia kuwa pathojeni mbaya sana.^[99] Bakteria hupinga maambukizi ya fej kupitia mfumo wa miundo zuifu ambazo huharibu DNA za kigeni,^[100] na mfumo unao tumia utaratibu wa CRISPR kuhifadhi mabaki ya jinomu za fej ambazo bakteria imetengamana nazo hapo awali, ambayo huziruhusu kuzuia kuiga na kuongezeka kwa virusi kwa njia ya kuzuia RNA.^[101]^[102] Mfumo huu wa CRISPR huwezesha bakteria kuwa na kinga dhidi ya maambukizi kwa magonjwa.

Tabia

Sekreshion

Bakteria mara kwa mara huwachilia kemikali kwenye mazingira yao ili kuyarekebisha iwafaavyo. Kemikali hizi mara nyingi huwa protini na mara nyingi hufanana na enzaimu kwa kusiaga aina fulani ya chakula katika mazingira.

Bioluminesenz

Bakteria chache huwa na mifumo ya kemikali ya kuzalisha mwangaza. Bakteri wa bioluminesenz mara nyingi hutokea katika bacteria wanaoishi katika muungano pamoja na samaki, na mwanga pengine husaidia kuvutia samaki au wanyama wengine wakubwa.^[103] - tazama Athari ya kibahari ya Milky.

Uwepo wa kuwa na Seli nyingi

(Angalia pia: Prokaryote # Ujamaa)

Bakteria mara nyingi hufanya kazi kama totala ya seli mingi inayojulikana kama bio-filamus, zikibadilishana ishara za molekuli mbalimbali kwa mawasiliano baina ya chembechembe, na kushiriki katika shuguli zenye uratibu.^[104]^[105]

Faida ya jumuiya ya ushirikiano wa pamoja wa seli za bakteria ni pamoja na ugavi wa kazi baina ya seli, upatifu wa rasilimali ambazo kawaida seli moja haiwezi kufanikiwa kutimiza, kwa pamoja kulinda dhidi ya adui , na kulinda dhidi ya kufifia kwa idadi yao kwa kujibadili hadi kwenye chembechmebe tofauti.^[104] Kwa mfano, bakteria katika bio-filamus zaweza kuwa zimeongeza upinzani wake kwa ajenti wa bakteria mara zaidi ya 500 kuliko "bakteria" za kipekee za planktonik za aina hiyo.^[105]

Aina moja ya mawasiliano baina ya seli kupitia ishara za molekuli inaitwa Kiwango hisi ambayo huumika kwa kusudi ya kutathmini uwepo wa msongamano wa idadi ya kutosha ili kujiingiza kwenye shughuli ambazo zitafanikiwa tu iwapo kuna idadi kubwa ya viumbe sawia vyenye kujishughulisha kwenye shughuli sawia, kama vile katika utoaji wa Enzaimu za utumbo au kutoa mwangaza.

Kiwango hisi huruhusu bakteria kuratibu kujieleza kwa jeni, na kuziwezesha kuzalisha, kutoa na kubaini uwepo wa autoindusa au feromoni ambazo hujilimbikiza na ukuaji wa idadi ya chembechembe. ^[106]

Usongaji

Further information: Chemotaxis, Flagellum, Pilus

Bakteria wengi hufanya mwendo kwa kutumia mbinu mbalimbali: flajela hutumika kwa kuogelea majini,utelezi na misuli ya bakteria huisongeza sakafuni, na mabadiliko ya ueleaji huruhusu mwendo wa wima.^[107]

Bakteria za kuogelea mara kadhaa husonga kiasi cha umbali wa miili yao mara 10 kwa sekunde na chache hata kwa kasi ya mara 100. Hii huwafanya angalau kuwa kasi kama samaki, kwa uzani fulani.^[108]

Katika utumizi wa misuli kusogelea, bakteria hutumia Pili aina ya IV kama ndoano ya kushikilia, zikiirefusha zaidi, zikiishiliza na kisha kuirudisha kwa kutumia nguvu ya ajabu (>80pN).^[109]

Flajela ni miundo ya nusu-silinda iliyozungushwa na hufanya kazi kama propela kwa meli. Vitu vidogo kama bakteria hufanya kazi chini ya Nambari ya Reynold na mfumo wa silinda ni bora zaidi kuliko wa bapa, wa ki-kafi, mifumo muafaka kwa saizi ya binadamu.^[110]

Spishi za aina za bakteria hutofautiana katika idadi na mpangilio wa flajela juu yazo; baadhi zina flajela moja(monotrikaos),zingine zina flajela kila upembe (amfitrikas)), mrundiko wa flajela kwenye ubanze wa seli lofotrikas)) , wakati zingine zina flajela zilizosambazwa kote kwenye seli (peritrikos). Flajela ya bakteria ndiyo iliyoeleweka kama kiungo cha usongezi katika kiumbe chochote na imetengezwa kwa takribani protini 20, na takribani protini 30 zingine zikihitajika kwa ajili ya udhibiti wake na mkutano.^[107] Flajela ni kiumbo kinachoendeshwa kwa mfumo wa kupokezana wa mota iliyoko chini na hutumia gradient ya elektrokemia kwenye utando kwa nguvu.^[111] Mota hii husukuma mwendo wa filamenti, ambayo hufanya kazi kama propela.

Bakteria mingi (kama vile E. coli) zina mbinu mbili tofauti za kujisongeza: kusonga mbele (kuogelea) na kutumbua. Kutumbua huziwezesha kujirekebisha na hufanya mwenendo zao kuwa tembezi baghala na mwenendo wa hali-tatu.^[112] (Tazama viungo vya nje chini kwa viungo zilizounganishwa na video.) Flajela wa kundi la kipekee la bakteria, spairochet, hupatikana kati ya utando mbili katika nafasi ya periplasmik. Wana mwili wa kipekee wa helikal ambao hufurukuta inaposonga.^[107]

Bakteria songezi huvutiwa au hukataliwa kwa baadhi ya chochezi katia tabia iitwayo taksis : na hizi hujumulisha kemotaksis , fototaksis na magnetotakis.^[113]^[114] Katika kundi moja pekee, myksobakteria, bakteria za kipekee hutembea pamoja kuunda mawimbi ya seli ambayo huunda vyombo vyenye matunda.^[37] Myksoobakteria husogelea tu kwenye sakafu kavu, tofauti na E. coli ambayo hosogelea katika miiundo kavu au oevu.

Listeria na Shigella kadhaa husogelea ndani ya seli enyeji kwa kupenyeza saitoskeletoni, ambayo kawaida hutumika kwa kusafairisha viini ndani ya seli. Kwa kukuza upolimishaji wa actin kwenye banzi moja ya seli,zaweza kuunda aina ya mkia unaozisukuma kwenye saitoplasm ya seli enyeji.^[115]

Uainisho na utambulisho

Further information: Scientific classification, Systematics and Clinical pathology

Madhumuni ya Uainishaji ni kuelezea spishi tofauti za bakteria kwa kuzitaja na kuwaweka viumbe msingi yanayofanana. Bakteria wanaweza kwa misingi ya umbo la kiini chao, umetaboli wa seli au kwa mujibu wa tofauti wa yaliyomo kwenye seli kama vile DNA, asidi za mafuta, rangi asili, antijeni s na kuinoni s.^[116] Inagwa skimu hizi ziliruhusu utambulisho na Uainishaji wa bakteria, haikubainika wazi kama tofauti hizi ziliwakilisha aina mbalimbali za spishi mbili tofauti ama aina ya spishi moja. uhakika huu umebadilisha kutokana na ukosefu wa miundo tofauti katika bakteria wengi, kama vile uhamisho jeni lateral kati ya aina unrelated.^[117] Kutokana na uhamisho wa jeni ya chini, baadhi ya bakteria wanaohusiana kwa karibu wanaweza kuwa umbo na umetaboli tofauti. Ili kuondokana na dukuduku hili, uainishaji wa bakteria wa kisasa husisitiza mpangilio wa molekiuli, kwa kutumia mbinu za kimaumbile kama vile guanine uwiano wa uamuzi wa sitosini uzalishaji wa genome-genome, pamoja na uratibishaji wa jeni ambazo hazijapitia ubadilishanaji mkubwa wa jeni za chini, kama vile jeni ya RNA.^[118] Uainisho wa bakteria umetokana na Juzuu la Kimataifa kuhusu Mfumo Taaluma ya Bakteria,^[119] na Muongozo wa Bergey wa utaratibu Taaluma ya Bakteria.^[120] Kamati ya Kimataifa juu ya Utaratibu Wa Bakteriolojia (ICSB) ndiyo hulinda kanuni za kimataifa za kuwapa majina makundi mbalimbali ya bakteria na kuwaweka katika viwango tofauti katika Kanuni ya Kimataifa ya majina ya Bakteria.

Awali neno "bakteria" lilitumika kwa vijiumbe vyote vidogo, prokaryoti za seli moja. Hata hivyo, mifumo ya molekiuli ilionyesha maisha ya prokaryoti yakiwa na sehemu mbili tofauti ambazo awali ziliitwa Eubacteria na Archaebacteria, lakini ambayo kwa sasa inazoitwa Bakteria na Akea ambayo ilitokana na mabadiliko ya kujitegemea kutoka mababu zao.^[121] Akea na yukaryoti hufanana sana kinyume na ilivyo na bakteria. Hii miundo miwili, pamoja na Yukarya, ndio msingi wa mfumo wa sehemu tatu ambayo kwa sasa ndiyo hutumika sana katika uainisho wa maikrobayolojia.^[122] Hata hivyo, kutokana kuanzishwa kwa hivi karibuni mifumo ya molekiuli na kuongezeka kwa kasi kwa idadi ya mfululizo wa genome waliopo,uainisho wa bakteria unaendelea kubadilika na an kuwa eneo pana.^[123]^[124] Kwa mfano, wanabayolojia wachache wanadai kuwa Akea na Yukaryoti walitokana na mabadiliko chanya ya bakteria ya Gram.^[125]

Utambulisho wa bakteria katika maabara ni muhimu, hasa katika dawa, ambapo matibabu sahihi hutokana na spishi inayosababisha maambukizi. Kwa hiyo, haja ya kutambua visababisha magonjwa ya binadamu ilikuwa msukumo mkubwa katika maendeleo ya kuibua mbinu za kutambua bakteria.

Waa la Gram, iliyoasisiwa mwaka 1884 na Hans Christian Gram, inaweka bakteria katika makundi mbalimbali kwa msingi wa miundo ya kuta za seli zao.^[59] Rusu nene za peptidoglaikoni "Gram-chanya" kuta za seli huwa na baka la zambarau ilihali ile nyembamba nyembamba "Gram-hasi" ukuta wa seli huonekana kuwa wa waridi. Kwa kuchanganya mofolojia na madoa ya Gram, bakteria wengi wanaweza kuainishwa kama waliyo kwenye kundi moja kati ya makundi manne (Gram-positive cocci, bacilli Gram-positive, cocci Gram-negative na bacilli Gram-negative bacilli). Baadhi ya viumbe hutambulika vizuri kwa kutumia mabaka kando na baka la Gram, hususan maikobakteria au Nokardia, ambao huonyesha kasi ya asidi wakati wako kwenye Ziehl-Neelsen au baka sawia na hilo.^[127] Baadhi ya viumbe wanaweza kutambuliwa kwa kuwalea katika mazingira na vifaa maalumu, au kwa mbinu nyingine, kama vile serolojia.

Mbinu za mazingira maalumu zimebuniwa ili kukuza ukuaji na kutambua bakteria fulani, huku zikizuia ukuaji wa baadhi ya sampuli za bakteria. Mara nyingi mbinu hizi huwa zimeundwa kwa spishi maalumu, kwa mfano, sampuli ya sputum inaweza kushughulikwa ili kuonyesha ni vijiumbe gani husababishakichomi, ilihali sampuli za kinyesi hukuzwa katika mazingira maalumu kutambua vijiumbe ambao husababisha kuhara, huku ukidhibiti ukuaji wa vijiumbe visivyoleta magonjwa. Sampuli ambazo kwa kawaida huwa tasa, kama vile damu, mkojo au maji ya mti wa mgongo, hukuzwa katika mazingira ambayo yanaweza kukuza vijiumbe vya kila nui .^[116]^[128] Mara tu kijiumbe kinachosababisha magonjwa kinapotengwa, kinaweza kuelezewa zaidi kupitia kwa umbo lake, ruwaza za ukuaji kama vile (ukuaji wa aerobiki au ukuaji, mifumo ya hemolisi) na matumizi ya mabaka.

Kama ilivyo na uinisho wa bakteria, matumizi ya njia ya molekiuli katika utambulishio wa bakteria yanaendelea kuongezeka. Matibabu ya kutumia vifaa vya msingi wa DNA, kama vile mchakato wa mmenyeko wa polimerase, unazidi kuwa na umaarufu kutokana na umahususi na kasi yake, ikilinganishwa njia za ukuaji katika mazingira maalumu.^[129] Aidha, mbinu hizi huruhu uchunguzi na utambuzi wa seli zilizo hai lakini ambazo hazijakuzwa katika mazingira maalumu ambazo hazijigawanyi lakini zina umetaboli.^[130] Hata hivyo, kando na kutumia mbinu hizi zilizoboreshwa, idadi kamili ya spishi za bakteria haijulikani na haiwezi kukadiriwa na uhakika wowote. Kufuatia uainisho wa sasa, spishi za bakteria zinazojulikana ni chini ya 9,000 (ikiwa ni pamoja na cyanobacteria),^[131] lakini majaribio ya kukisia viwango kamili vya baketeria mbalimbali vimekuwa kati ya 107 hadi 109 jumla ya spishi-na hata hayo makadirio haya mbalimbali yanaweza kuwa na viwango vingi vya kiasi mabalimbali.^[132]^[133]

Mwingiliano na viumbe wengine

Licha ya ukawaida wao, bakteria wanaweza kuwa na muungano mkubwa na viumbe wengine. Uhusiano huu wa kutegemeana kugawanywa unaweza kugawanwa katika uhsiano wa ukupe, kutoshelezana na kunufaika. Kutokana na udogo wao,bakteria wa komeshuali huwa na maumbo yasiyoeleweka na huishi kwa wanyama na mimea kama wanavyokua katika sehemu nyingine. Hata hivyo, ukuaji ukuaji wao unaweza kuongezwa kwa joto na jasho, na idadi kubwa ya viumbe hawa kwa binadamu ndiyo husababisha harufu ya mwili.

Wawindaji

Baadhi ya spishi za bakteria huua na hula vijiumbe vingine, viumbe hawa huitwa bakteria wawindaji..^[134] Hawa ni pamoja na vijiumbe kama vile Myxococcus xanthus, amabo huunda kundi la seliambazo huua na kumeng'enya bakteria yoyote wanayokutana nayo.^[135] Bakteria wengine wawindaji ama hujiunganisha kwenye mawindo yao ili kuimeng'enya na kunyonya virutubisho, kama vile Vampirococcus, au huvamia seli nyingine na kuzaana ndani ya sehemu wazi ya seli, kama vile Daptobacter. ^[136] Bakteria hawa wawindaji wanadhaniwa kwamba walitokana na saprophages ambao walikula mizoga, na kutokana na mazoea iliwawezesha kunasa na kuua vijiumbe wengine.^[137]

Wanaotegemeana

Baadhi ya bakteria huwa na uhusia wakaribu na huunda makundi ambayo nimuhimu katika maisha yao. Mfano mmoja wauhusiano huu wa kutegemeana uitwao uhamisho wa haidrojeni hutokea kati ya makundi ya bakteria wa aerobiki na wale wa anaerobiki ambao hula asidi ya kaboni kama vile asidi biutiriki au asidi propioniki na huzalisha haidrojeni, na methanogeni ya Akea ambayo hutumia haidrojeni.^[138] bakteria katika uhusiano huu hawawezi kutumiaasdi ya kaboni kwa sababu mmenyeko hutoa haidrojeni ambayo hujilimbikiza katika mazingira yao. Ni uhusiano huu tu wa ndani na Akea wanaotumia haidrojeni ambao hudhibiti viwango vya haidrojeni kuwa chini ilikuruhusu bakteria kukua.

Katika udongo, vijiube wanaoishi kwenyeraizosifia ya (a ukanda wa ozoni ambao ni pamoja na mizizi na udongo hunata kwenye mizizi baada ya kutikisa) hutekeleza jukumu la kuongeza nitrojeni kwa kuwageuza gesi ya nitrojeni kuwa misombo ya nitrojeni.^[139] Hii husaidia kutooa aina ya haidrojeni ambayo inanyonyek kwa urahisi na mimea mingi, ambayo haiwezi kujiongezea oksijeni yenyewe. Bakteria wengine wengi hupatikana kama saimbioti katika binadamu na viumbe wengine. Kwa mfano, uwepo wa spishi za bakteria zaidi ya 1,000 katika utumbo wa binadamu unaweza kuchanga katika kinga ya utumbo mmeng'enyo wa vitamini kaama vile asidi ya foliki vitamini k na biotin, kubadilisha protini ya maziwa na asidi laktik (Tazama Lactobacillus), pamoja na uchachushaji wa kabohaidreti kubwa zisizomeng'enyeka.^[140]^[141]^[142] Uwepo wa utumbo huu hudhibiti wa vimelea ambavyo husababisha magonjwa (kawaida kwa kutengwa kwa lazima) na bakteria hawa wa manufaa huuzwa kama chakula mbadala cha probiotiki.^[143]

Picha inayoonyesha bakteriainayosababisha homa ya matumbo ikivamia seli za binadamu katika mazingira maalumu

Vimelea vinavyosababisha magonjwa

Makala kuu: Pathogenic bacteria

Iwapo bakteria watakuwa na uhusiano wa kupe na viumbe wengine, huainishwa kama vimelea vya magonjwa. Bakteria wanaosababisha magonjwa ndiyo husababisha vifo vingi kwa binadamu na husababisha magonjwa ya kuambukizwa kama vile pepopunda, homa ya matumbo, mkamba, kaswende, kipindupindu, magonjwa yanayotokana na chakula, ukoma na kifua kikuu. Kimelea kinachojulikana kwa kusababisha magonjwa kinaweza kujulikana baada ya miaka mingi, kama ilivyokuwa kwa Helicobacter pylori na ugonjwa vidonda vya tumbo wa peptiki. Magonjwa ya bakteria ni muhimu pia katika kilimo, huku bakteria wakisababisha madoa ya matawi, kukauka na kupukutika katika mimea, kadhalikaugonjwa wa Johne, ugonjwa wa maziwa, salmonella na kimeta katika wanyama wa kufugwa.

Kila spishi ya pathojeni ina tabia ya mwingiliano na miili ya binadamu . Baadhi ya viumbe, kama vile Staphylococcus au Streptococcus, wanaweza kusababisha maambukizi ya ugonjwa wa ngozi, kichomi, ugonjwawa tango za uti wa mgongo na hata sepsis kupita kiasi, uvimbe wa mara kwa mara ambao huleta mshtuko, kunyong'onyea kwa mishipa ya damu na kifo.^[144] Hata hivyo, viumbe hawa ni sehemu ya kawaida ya binadamu na mimea na huwa kwenye ngozi au pua bila kusababisha ugonjwa wowote. viumbe vingine husababisha magonjwa kwa binadamu, kama vile Rickettsia, ambayo ni kimelea cha ndani ya seli ambayo huweza kukua na kuzaa kama iko ndani ya viumbe wengine. Spishi moja ya Rickettsia husababisha homaya matumbo, ilihali nyingine husababisha homa inayopatikana maeneo ya milima. Klamidia, kundi lingine la vimelea wa ndani, ina ina spishi ambazo zinaweza kusababisha kichomi, au maambukizi ya magonjwa ya njia ya mkojo na kuchangia katika magonjwa ya mishipa ya moyo.^[145] Mwisho kabisa, baadhi ya spishi kama vile Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cenocepacia, na Mycobacterium avium ni ni pathojeni ambazo hutaka kutumia hali fulani ya binadamu walio na uhaba wa kinga ya magonjwa ama chanagarawe zas aitiki.^[146]

[[File:Bacterial infections and involved species.png|thumb|left|380px|Muhtasari wa maambukiziya bakteria na spishi maalumu zinazohusika. Hitilafu ya kutaja: Invalid parameter in <ref> tag Antibiotiki hutumiwa katika kutibu magonjwa ya binadamu na katika kilimo kikubwa kukuza ukuaji wa wanyama, ambapo zinaweza kuchangia katika ukuaji wa kasi ya uwezo wa kupigana na idadi ya bakteria.^[147] Maambukiziyanaweza kuzuiwa kwa kutumia maagizo ya antiseptiki kama vile kusafisha ngozi kabla ya kuitoboa kwa sindano au sirenji, na kwa utunzaji mzuri wa katheta za nyumbani. Vifaa vya upasuaji na vya meno pia husafishwa kuzuia kuchafuka kutokana na bakteria. Sabuni za kuosha kama vile blichi hutumiwa kuua bakteria au pathojeni zingine katika sehemu mablimbali ili kuzuia uchafu na uwezekano wa kuambukizwa ugonjwa.

Umuhimu katika teknolojia na viwanda

Further information: Economic importance of bacteria

Bakteria,hususan bakteria wa asidi ya laktiki kama vile Lactobacillus na Lactococcus, inapoongezwa chachu , wametumika kwa maelfu ya miaka katika maandalizi ya vyakula vya kuchachusha kama vile jibini, s pickle, sosi ya soya, sauerkraut, siki, mvinyo ghururu.^[148]^[149]

Uwezo wa bakteria kuharibu misombo mbalimbali ya kaboni ni muhimu na imetumika katika usindikaji wa taka na na ufuaji wa misombo ya kaboni utoka kwa taka. Mara nyingi bakteria wenye uwezo wa kusagahaidrokaboni katika mafuta ya petroli mara nyingi hutumika kusafisha mafuata yanayovuja.^[150] Mbolea iliongezwa kwa baadhi ya fukwe katika Prince William Sound katika jaribio la kukuza ukuaji wa kawaida wa hawa bakteria baada ya kuvuja ambako kulileta hasara kwa mwaka 1989 Exxon Valdez . Juhudi hizi zilifanikiwa katika fukwe amabo hazikiwa zimefunikwa na rusu nene ya mafuta. Bakteria pia hutumika katia ufufuaji wa misombo ya kaboni kutoka kwa taka za viwanda zenye sumu.^[151] Katika sekta ya viwanda vya kemikali, bakteria ni muhimu katika uzalishaji wa kemikali safi za enatiomeriki ambazo hutumika kama dawa au dawa za mimea.^[152]

Bakteria pia wanaweza kutumika badala ya dawa kuua wadudu katiaka kudhibiti wadudu kibayolojia. Kwa kawaida hii huhusisha Bacillus thuringiensis (pia huitwa BT), bakteria ya Gram-chanya inayopatikana katika udongo. Spishi ndogo za hii bakteria hutumika kama dawa maalumu ya kuua wadudu ya Lepidoptera inayojulikana kwa jina la madukani kama vile Dipel na Thuricide.^[153] Kwa sababu ya umaalumu wao, dawa hizi zinaaminika kuwa hazina madhara yoyote katika mazingira, bila atahri yoyote kwa binadamu wanyama, wadudu wa kufyonza na wadudu wengine wengi wenye manufaa kwa binadamu.^[154]^[155]

Kwa sababu ya uwezo wao kukua kwa haraka na urahisi ambao wanaweza kubadilishwa, bakteria hutumika pakubwa katika bayolojia ya molekiuli{0,{/0} taaluma ya nasaba au jenitiki na biokemia. Kwa kubadilika katika maumbo ya DNA ya bakteria na kuchunguza umbo la nje linalotokea, wanasayansi wanaweza kujua dhima ya jeni, s vimeng'enya na njia za umetaboli katika bakteria, na kutumia ujuzi huu kwenye wanyama wakubwa.^[156] Lengo la kulewa biokemi ya seli na hufikia kiwango chake tata katika usagaji wa wa iadi kubwa ya vimeng'enya na maelezo ya data ya jeni katika mtindo wa hisabati ya viumbe wote. Hali hii inaweza kufikiwa katika baadhi ya bakteria ambao wametafitiwa vizuri, wenye maumbo ya umetaboli wa Escherichia coli ambao kwa sasa wanazalishwa na kujaribiwa.^[157]^[158] Uwelewa wa umetaboli wa bakteria na jenetiki yake inawezesha matumizi ya bayoteknolojia katika uhandisi wa bakteria kwa ajili ya uzalishaji wa protini ya matibabu, kama vile insulini, nyenzo za ukuaji, au kingamwili.^[159]^[160]

Tazama Pia

Maelezo

α. ^{^} Neno bakteria limetoka kwa lugha ya Kigiriki βακτήριον ya baktērion,, maana yake "kitu kidogo".

Marejeo (Kwa lugha ya Kingereza)

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Bacteria which affect crops and other plants
Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ
Genera of the domain Bacteria - list of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature
The largest bacteria
Tree of Life: Eubacteria
Videos of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other videos.
Planet of the Bacteria by Stephen Jay Gould
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Animated guide to bacterial cell structure.
Bacteria Make Major Evolutionary Shift in the Lab
Cell-Cell Communication in Bacteria on-line lecture by Bonnie Bassler, and TED: Discovering bacteria's amazing communication system
Online collaboration for bacterial taxonomy.
Parts of a bacterial cell
Bacterial Chemotaxis Interactive Simulator - A web-app that uses several simple algorithms to simulate bacterial chemotaxis.

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