Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton mwaka 1689.

Kitabu chake Principia Mathematica, 1686.

Isaac Newton (25 Desemba 1642 – 20 Machi 1727) alikuwa mwanahisabati, mwanafizikia na mwanateolojia kutoka nchi ya Uingereza.

Anakumbukwa duniani kote kutokana na michango yake mbalimbali katika sayansi.

Ndiye aliyegundua tawi la kalkulasi (sambamba na Leibniz), kanuni za mwendo na ya uvutano.

Mchango mwingine wa Isaac Newton upo katika nadharia ya nuru, akitumia mche kuonyesha jinsi rangi zinazounda nuru (kama zinavyoonekana kwenye upinde wa mvua) zinavyotokea.

Alichangia pia elimuanga kwa kuboresha darubiniakisi iliyoleta matokeo mazuri. Alitambua ya kwamba kanuni za uvutano zinatawala pia mwendo wa sayari. Alitunga ramani ya nyota kufuatana na tafiti za Flamsteed.

Elimu na imani

Newton alipata shahada yake ya kwanza mwaka 1665 na ile ya uzamili mwaka 1668.

Kwa kuwa alizaliwa katika familia ya Kianglikana, alitumia muda mwingi kufanya utafiti wa Biblia na theolojia pia. Alilenga kupatanisha elimu ya sayansi na imani yake. Aliandika "Uvutano unaeleza miendo ya sayari lakini haiwezi kueleza ni nani aliyeanzisha miendo yake. Mungu anatawala mambo yote na yaliyopo na yanayoweza kuwepo".

Tarehe 10 Desemba 1682 alimuandikia Richard Bentley: "Siamini ulimwengu unaweza kuelezwa na sababu za maumbile tu, bali nalazimika kuuona kama tunda la hekima na ubunifu vya mmoja mwenye akili". Hata hivyo, yeye binafsi hakukubali mafundisho juu ya Utatu wa Mungu.

Maandishi yake

• Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project
• The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings
• Works by Isaac Newton katika Project Gutenberg
• Descartes, Space, and Body and A New Theory of Light and Colour, modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett
• Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light, full text on archive.org
• "Newton Papers" – Cambridge Digital Library
• (1686) "A letter of Mr. Isaac Newton... containing his new theory about light and colors" Archived 9 Oktoba 2020 at the Wayback Machine., Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. XVI, No. 179, pp. 3057–3087. – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library
• (1704) Opticks Archived 16 Oktoba 2020 at the Wayback Machine. – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library
• (1719) Optice Archived 8 Septemba 2020 at the Wayback Machine. – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library
• (1729) Lectiones opticae Archived 27 Oktoba 2020 at the Wayback Machine. – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library
• (1749) Optices libri tres Archived 16 Septemba 2020 at the Wayback Machine. – digital facsimile at the Linda Hall Library

Marejeo

• Ball, W.W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20630-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905190-0. This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics
• Craig, John (1958). "Isaac Newton – Crime Investigator". Nature. 182 (4629): 149–52. Bibcode:1958Natur.182..149C. doi:10.1038/182149a0.
• Craig, John (1963). "Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 18 (2): 136–45. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017.
• Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-547-33604-6.
• Manuel, Frank E (1968). A Portrait of Isaac Newton. Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-55742-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Westfall, Richard S. (1980). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921355-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47737-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN 978-1-85702-416-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Marejeo mengine

• Andrade, E.N.De C. (1950). Isaac Newton. New York: Chanticleer Press. ISBN 978-0-8414-3014-3.
• Bardi, Jason Socrates. The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time (2006) excerpt and text search
• Bechler, Zev (1991). Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution. Springer. ISBN 978-0-7923-1054-9.
• Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9). Springer. ISBN 978-9400977174.
• Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000); isbn|0-684-84392-7
• Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard (eds.) Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy, MIT Press (2001) excerpt and text search
• Casini, P (1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 42 (1): 35–52. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006. ISSN 0035-9149. JSTOR 531368.
• Christianson, Gale E. (1996). Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530070-3. See this site for excerpt and text search.
• Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-905190-0.
• Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online Archived 26 Mei 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
• Cohen, I.B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22964-7.
• Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
• Dampier, William C.; Dampier, M. (1959). Readings in the Literature of Science. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-486-42805-5.
• de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London, UK: G.D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
• Dobbs, B.J.T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Eamon Duffy, "Far from the Tree" (review of Rob Iliffe, Priest of Nature: the Religious Worlds of Isaac Newton, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017, ISBN|9780199995356), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 4 (8 March 2018), pp. 28–29.
• Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7102-0279-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-42233-1.
• Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions. 186: 291–97.
• Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. Kigezo:Isbn Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein
• Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Iliffe, Rob (2017). Priest of Nature: the religious worlds of Isaac Newton. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199995356.
• Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00189-1. Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
• Koyré, A (1965). Newtonian Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958, 1978; Kigezo:Isbn.
• Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). The Principia: a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen; Kigezo:Isbn, University of California (1999)
• Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9. Bibcode:1966PhTea...4....8M. doi:10.1119/1.2350900.
• Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25346-6.
• Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147–9; "Discoveries" pp. 150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946).
• Simmons, J (1996). The Giant Book of Scientists – The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time. Sydney: The Book Company.
• Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London, UK: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)
• Trabue, J. “Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton,” The American Genealogist 79 (2004): 13–27.
• Westfall, R.S. (1971). Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century. London, UK: Macdonald. ISBN 978-0-444-19611-8.

Dini

• Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism
• Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence. (1999), pp. xvii, 325; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts
• Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (Januari 1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1): 57–80. Bibcode:1961JHI....22..215C. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR 3653988.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
• Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" British Journal for the History of Science 34: 417–38. in JSTOR, argues that his calculus had a theological basis
• Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia", Osiris 2nd series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp. 169–208 in JSTOR
• Snobelen, Stephen D. (1999). "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite". British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR 4027945.
• Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries. (1996) 214 pages, with chapter 4 on eighteenth century England; pp. 77–93 on Newton, excerpt and text search.

Viungo vya nje

• ScienceWorld biography by Eric Weisstein
• Dictionary of Scientific Biography
• "The Newton Project"
• Science in the Making Isaac Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives
• "The Newton Project – Canada"
• "Newton's Dark Secrets" – NOVA TV programme
• from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • "Isaac Newton", by George Smith
  • "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica", by George Smith
  • "Newton's Philosophy", by Andrew Janiak
  • "Newton's views on space, time, and motion", by Robert Rynasiewicz
• "Newton's Castle" – educational material
• "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton", research on his alchemical writings
• The "General Scholium" to Newton's Principia
• Kandaswamy, Anand M. "The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context"
• Newton's First ODE Archived 5 Julai 2007 at the Wayback Machine. – A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series
• "The Mind of Isaac Newton" – images, audio, animations and interactive segments
• Enlightening Science Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion
• Newton biography (University of St Andrews)
• The Linda Hall Library has digitized Two copies of John Marsham's (1676) Canon Chronicus Aegyptiacus Archived 20 Septemba 2020 at the Wayback Machine., one of which was owned by Isaac Newton Archived 13 Oktoba 2020 at the Wayback Machine., who marked salient passages by dog-earing the pages so that the corners acted as arrows. The books can be compared side-by-side to show what interested Newton.

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