Nenda kwa yaliyomo

Muziki wa hip hop

Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru
(Elekezwa kutoka Hip Hop)

Hip-hop (pia inajulikana kama muziki wa rap au kwa kifupi rap) ni aina ya muziki maarufu ulioibuka mapema miaka ya 1970 pamoja na utamaduni wake huko mjini New York City. Mtindo huu wa muziki una sifa ya usanisi wa mbinu mbalimbali, lakini kuchana (rapping) ni jambo la mara kwa mara kiasi kwamba limekuwa sifa bainifu. Alama nyingine kuu za aina hii ni disc jockey (DJ), turntablism, scratching, beatboxing, na nyimbo za ala (instrumentals). Kubadilishana kitamaduni kumekuwa kiini cha aina ya hip-hop; huazima kutoka katika mazingira yake ya kijamii huku ikiyaelezea mazingira hayo ndani ya mistari.

Aina ya hip-hop na utamaduni wake uliibuka kutoka kwa sherehe za mitaani (block parties) katika vitongoji vya watu wachache (ethnic minorities) huko New York City, hasa the Bronx. Ma-DJ walianza kurefusha sehemu za ala (breaks) za rekodi maarufu walipoona jinsi zilivyokuwa zikiwachangamsha watu. Sehemu hizo zilizorefushwa zilitoa jukwaa kwa ajili ya wacheza mabreka na wachanaji. Midundo hii (breakbeats) iliwezesha mabadiliko yaliyofuata ya mtindo wa hip-hop. Rekodi nyingi zilizotumiwa zilikuwa za disco kutokana na umaarufu wake wakati huo. Muziki huu wenye vionjo vya disco mwanzoni ulijulikana kama disco rap na baadaye ulielezwa kama "old-school hip-hop".

Katikati ya miaka ya 1980, hip-hop ilianza kupanuka huku muziki wa electro ukianza kuathiri new-school hip-hop. Kipindi cha katikati ya miaka ya 1980 na 1990 kilijulikana kama "zama za dhahabu" za hip-hop, ambapo aina hiyo ilipata sifa kubwa kutoka kwa wachambuzi na kuingiza mauzo makubwa. Kote Marekani, matukio kadhaa ya kikanda yaliibuka, hususan katika Pwani ya Mashariki na Magharibi, pamoja na Kusini, ambayo ilijumuisha maeneo ya Houston, Atlanta na Memphis rap. Enzi hii iliona kuibuka kwa mitindo maarufu kama G-funk, boom bap na gangsta rap, pamoja na aina nyingine za majaribio kama alternative hip-hop na jazz rap, ambazo zilitokana na harakati za Native Tongues, pamoja na hip-hop ya kimaendeleo na conscious hip-hop.

Mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1990 hadi katikati ya miaka ya 2000, umaarufu wa hip-hop ulizidi kupanuka kwa "enzi ya bling" iliyolenga zaidi klabu. Mwishoni mwa miaka ya 2000 na mapema miaka ya 2010 iliona kuongezeka kwa "enzi ya blogu" na rap ya Mtandao, huku wasanii vijana wakitumia Mtandao kujitengenezea wafuasi. Katikati hadi mwishoni mwa miaka ya 2010, muziki wa trap na Soundcloud rap viliongezeka umaarufu, jambo ambalo lilileta wasanii kadhaa waliofanikiwa kibiashara. Mnamo 2017, hip-hop ikawa aina ya muziki inayouza zaidi nchini Marekani na pia ilikuwa imetengeneza vionjo vyake vya kikanda ulimwenguni kote.

Etimolojia

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"Hip-hop" imekuwa ikitumika tangu karne ya 17 kumaanisha mfululizo wa miruko (hops).[1][2] Katika mchezo wa kuigiza wa George Villiers wa mwaka 1671 uitwao The Rehearsal, Prince Volscius anatoka kwenye tukio kwa namna ya ajabu akiwa amevaa buti moja na liingine amelivua. Mwongozaji wa tukio hilo anasema kwa mshangao, "kuondoka kwa hip hop, hip hop, katika tukio hili, ni bora mara elfu kuliko hitimisho lolote duniani".[3]

Tofauti ya kawaida ya "hip hop" ni "hippity hop", ambayo ilikuwa ikitumiwa sana kufikia karne ya 19. Inaonekana katika kazi kama shairi la mwaka 1882 ambapo watoto wanne wanaimba, "Hippity hop to the candy Shop!"[4] Kilikuwa kiitikio cha kawaida katika michezo ya kuruka kamba.[5]

Hatua nyingi za kucheza zinajumuisha mruko (hop). Fikia karne ya 18, "hop" ilianza kutumika kwa kubadilishana na "dance" kama nomino na kitenzi.[6]

Matumizi

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Keef Cowboy (juu kulia) akiwa na Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five mnamo 1982

Matumizi ya mapema ya "hip hop" katika muziki maarufu uliorekodiwa yanapatikana katika wimbo wa kucheza wa The Dovells wa mwaka 1963 "You Can't Sit Down", "...you gotta slop, bop, flip flop, hip hop, never stop".[7] Muongo mmoja baadaye, ma-DJ wa Disco walikuwa wakipamba seti zao kwa maneno ya kuwahamasisha watu, ndiyo maana mtindo huo ulioibuka mwanzoni ulijulikana kama "disco rap". Moja ya kauli za DJ Hollywood ilikuwa "hip hop de hippy hop the body rock".[8]: 183f  Lovebug Starsky anakumbuka kuanzisha msemo huo alipokosea kubadilisha rekodi, "Nilichukua maiki na kuanza kusema tu 'a hip hop, hip hop, de hibbyhibbyhibbyhibby hop'",[9] akidai sifa ya kuvumbua jina hilo kufikia 1979.[10]

Katika toleo jingine la hadithi ya Starsky, alivumbua "hip-hop" akiwa na Keef Cowboy kutoka kundi la Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five walipokuwa wakimatania rafiki yao aliyekuwa akiingia jeshini.[11] Kidd Creole anakumbuka tukio hilo bila Lovebug kuwepo, "Cowboy alikuwa kwenye maiki akicheza akifanya yale miondoko ya kijeshi: Hip/Hop/Hip/Hop... Disco ilikuwa ndiyo mfalme wakati huo, na watu wa Disco walitutaja kama wale 'Hip Hoppers', lakini waliitumia kama neno la kejeli. Lakini Cowboy ndiye alikuwa wa kwanza kumsikia akifanya hivyo kwenye muziki, kama sehemu ya kuitikia kwa umati."[12][13]

Msemo huo ulikuwa katika matumizi ya kawaida wakati The Sugarhill Gang waliporekodi "Rapper's Delight" mnamo 1979.[14] Kiitikio kinaanza na, "I said a hip-hop, the hippie, the hippie/To the hip, hip-hop and you don't stop the rockin'".[15]

Hadi kufikia mapema miaka ya 1980, ufafanuzi wa hip-hop ulikuwa umepanuka na kuwa "lebo inayojumuisha yote kwa ajili ya kuchana (rapping), mabreka (breaking), uchoraji wa grafiti (graffiti-writing), na utamaduni wa mitaani wa mavazi ya vikundi".[16] Afrika Bambaataa alikuwa na mchango mkubwa katika kuugeuza neno hilo kuwa nguvu chanya kupitia kundi lake la Universal Zulu Nation.[17]: 44f  Harakati zao za kijamii zilikuwa dhidi ya dawa za kulevya na ghasia.[18][19]: 33 

Wakati wachanaji walipoanza kutawala hip-hop, maneno hayo yakawa kisawe. Hata hivyo, ufafanuzi wa hip-hop siku zote umetajwa kuhusisha utamaduni wake wote.[20][21] Vipengele vyake vinne vikuu ni pamoja na kuchana (rapping), u-DJ (DJing), breakdancing, na sanaa ya grafiti.[22][23][24]: 90  Maarifa (Knowledge) wakati mwingine huelezewa kama kipengele cha tano, ikisisitiza jukumu lake katika kuunda maadili na kukuza uwezeshaji na ufahamu kupitia muziki.[25]

KRS-One alitambua vipengele vya ziada: kujieleza, mitindo ya mitaani, lugha ya mitaani, maarifa ya mitaani, na ujasiriamali wa mitaani. Pia alitambua mchezo wa wasichana wa kuruka kamba wa Double Dutch kama sehemu muhimu ya kimtindo ya breakdancing.[26][27]: 87, 113 

Mbali na kuazima kutoka kwa utamaduni, hip-hop wakati huo huo hutoa maoni juu yake. Kuanzia mizizi yake huko Bronx hadi kufikia kwake ulimwenguni hivi sasa, hip-hop imetumika kama sauti kwa wale walioteswa, ikiangazia masuala kama vile ukosefu wa usawa wa rangi, umaskini, na ukatili wa polisi.[28]

Historia ya asili

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Seti ya Technics 1200 turntables yenye mchanganyiko (mixer) wa Vestax PMC-06 Pro A

Chombo cha kwanza cha hip-hop kilikuwa ni santuri (turntable). Rekodi za Vinyl zilikuwa chanzo kikuu kwa ma-DJ ambao walifanyia kazi upya nyimbo na kuwa nyenzo mpya za kucheza. Mchakato huu uliiga mbinu ya kuazima mitindo iliyounda jazz miongo kadhaa nyuma. Aina za muziki ambazo hip-hop iliziingiza mwanzoni zilikuwa nyingi, lakini vyanzo vyake vikuu vilikuwa rekodi za disco na funk.

Hakuna mahali ambapo mwingiliano huu wa muziki ulionekana vyema zaidi kuliko katika kisiwa cha Caribbean cha Jamaica, ambapo mawimbi ya AM radio kutoka Miami, Florida, yalisikika. Mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950, vituo vya Marekani vilicheza muziki wa rhythm and blues wenye nguvu zaidi kuliko ule wa BBC uliokuwa ukitangazwa na kituo pekee cha redio cha kisiwa hicho, Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation.[29]: 99  Ma-DJ wa Marekani kama Jocko Henderson na Jockey Jack walitambulisha rekodi za R&B na mazungumzo ya 'jive' kisiwani humo. Ma-DJ wa ndani hivi karibuni walianza kuweka mifumo ya sauti kwa ajili ya sherehe za nje.[30]: 39f, 119ff  Kukatokea harakati za muziki zenye kusisimua. Mazungumzo ya 'jive' ya ma-DJ wa Marekani yaligeuka kuwa mtindo mpya wa muziki wa Toast wa Kijamaika unaotumia lugha ya Kipatois cha Jamaika.[31]

Mazungumzo ya Jive yalifanya vituo vilivyowalenga watu weusi kuwa maarufu katika enzi ya baada ya vita. Maneno yake yenye maana mbili yalikuwa neema kwa redio, yakiongeza viwango vya wasikilizaji kwenye vituo vilivyokuwa vikishuka. Yaliibuka kutokana na mila kama call and response, signifyin', the dozens, capping, na jazz poetry.[32][33] Mpito kutoka kwa mila ya mdomo kwenda kwenye mawimbi ya kibiashara ulionyeshwa na ma-DJ wa WDIA kama Nat D. na Rufus Thomas. Jive yao hewani iliboreshwa wakati wa majukumu yao ya uandaji kwenye Amateur Night ya Palace Theatre huko Beale Street huko Memphis, Tennessee.[34] Ma-DJ kama Al Benson wa Chicago (WJJD), Doctor Hep Cat wa Austin (KVET), na Jockey Jack wa Atlanta (WERD) walizungumza mtindo ule ule wa rap wenye midundo na vina.[35] Wangeweza kumtambulisha mwanamuziki mzuri kama, "Huyu hapa ni jamaa atakayekuhamisha kutoka nje ya mji kwa sababu anavuta gesi asilia... basi tega sikio paka aliyekubalika ambaye amejaza sanduku lake la maarifa katika nyumba ya waadilifu, na anaweza kukupagawisha."[36] Ma-DJ wengi weupe kama John R Richbourg kwenye kituo cha WLAC cha Nashville waliiga msemo wa 'mushmouth' wa kusini na jive talk, na kubadilisha muziki wa swing kuwa blues na bebop.[37][38] Wachanaji wa jive-talking wa redio za miaka ya 1950 waliwahimiza wachekeshaji wa muziki kama Rudy Ray Moore, Pigmeat Markham, na Blowfly, pamoja na mwimbaji wa soul James Brown. Wameitwa "mababu" (godfathers) wa muziki wa hip-hop.[30]: 249 g
"Here Comes the Judge"
"Here Comes the Judge" (1968) na Pigmeat Markham ina mazungumzo ya vina ya kujisifu juu ya mdundo wa ngoma wa funk, ikiwakilisha mtangulizi wa hip-hop.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Muhammad Ali, ushawishi mkubwa kwenye hip-hop

Hotuba yenye mahadhi ya rap ni desturi ya kale, iliyoanza kuratibiwa na Wagiriki. Katika muziki wa Magharibi wa karne ya 20, ilikuwa desturi iliyotumiwa sana katika kila kitu kuanzia sprechstimme[39] hadi talking blues. Mizizi ya kuchana (rapping) katika muziki wa Wamarekani Weusi inapatikana kwa urahisi kwa griots[40] katika utamaduni wa Afrika Magharibi.[41][42] Bo Diddley alitengeneza rekodi kadhaa za mazungumzo zenye ushawishi, na wimbo wa kikundi cha injili cha The Jubalaires wa mwaka 1946 "Noah" mara nyingi huonekana kama mtangulizi wa rap.[43][17]: 8  Rekodi nyingine mashuhuri za mazungumzo zilikuwa za Muhammad Ali I Am the Greatest (1963) na Pigmeat Markham "Here Comes the Judge" (1968).[44][45] Maneno ya Ali yalikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa kwenye hip-hop. Alijulikana kama "mjanja wa vina" (rhyming trickster) kutokana na uwasilishaji wake wa kuvutia wa majigambo, kejeli, na misemo isiyofutika.[46] Monolojia zake nyingi zilikuwa maingizo ya papo hapo (freestyle) ambayo yangekuja kuwa ujuzi muhimu kwa wachanaji wa Old-school hip-hop.[47]

Katika Jiji la New York, ushairi wa maneno ya kusemwa na wasanii kama The Last Poets, Jalal Mansur Nuriddin, na Gil Scott-Heron ulikuwa na athari kubwa katika enzi ya baada ya haki za kiraia. Walisaidia kuanzisha mazingira ya kitamaduni ambapo muziki wa hip-hop uliundwa.[48][49]

Wakati wa miaka hii ya mwanzo wa rap huko Marekani, muziki wa Jamaika mara kwa mara ulikuwa na rekodi za mazungumzo kama U-Roy na Peter Tosh "Righteous Ruler" na King Stitt "Fire Corner" mnamo 1969.[30]: 126  Ma-DJ wa Jamaika pia walikuwa wakichanganya upya (remixing) muziki uliorekodiwa ili kutengeneza sauti mpya. Duke Reid angesimamia mfumo wake wa sauti, akirekebisha vitufe hadi rekodi aliyokuwa akicheza isitambulike. Katika studio, wasanii kama King Tubby wangeondoa sauti za uimbaji kwenye rekodi ili kuunda toleo jipya.[29]: 99f  Shauku ya umma kwa mchanganyiko huu ikawa kubwa kiasi kwamba santuri zilitolewa zikiwa na wimbo asili upande mmoja na "toleo" la upande wa pili.[50][51] Mchanganyiko wa mbinu za utayarishaji ulikuja kujulikana kama dub music, na ndio mfano wa kisanii wenye nguvu zaidi kwa hip-hop.[52][30]: 132 

1973–1979: Kuzaliwa kwa hip-hop

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Breaking (mabreka)

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Kufikia miaka ya 1970, The Bronx ilikuwa imekatwa katikati na Cross Bronx Expressway.[19]: 2ff  Ujenzi huo uliharakisha "ukimbiaji wa watu weupe" kutoka kitongoji hicho na kuwakusanya wakazi wa kipato cha chini wa Kiafrika-Waamerika, Kilatin Amerika, na Wakaribi katika nusu ya kusini ya wilaya hiyo.[53]: 27f  Jumuiya hii kubwa, ya makabila mengi, na ya tabaka la wafanyakazi ndipo mahali ambapo hip-hop ilizaliwa.[54][55] Mila za makabila haya yote ziliunda aina hiyo iliyokuwa ikiibuka.[56][57][24]: 90  Kama muziki wote unavyofanya, hip-hop iliakisi hali halisi ya kijamii, kiuchumi, na kisiasa ya waumbaji wake, ambao wakati mwingine walikuwa wamenyimwa haki na kutengwa.[58][59][60]

Aina iliyotawala wakati huo ilikuwa disco. Hata vituo vya redio vya watu weusi vilikuwa vikicheza rekodi maarufu za disco huku vikiwalenga wasikilizaji wengi wa vitongoji vya miji. Jinsi Ulaya ilivyoepusha uasili wa watu weusi kwenye funk na disco na kuufanya kuwa rahisi ulikuja kuwa shabaha ya kejeli katika jumuiya ya watu weusi. George Clinton aliukebehi bila huruma kama "The Placebo Syndrome" katika ntholojo yake ya P-Funk.[61]: 155ff  Ingawa disco ilizaa hip-hop, roho nyingi za awali za aina hiyo zilikuwa uasi dhidi ya mzazi wake.[62] Hip-hop kwanza ilibidi irithi kundi tajiri la mbinu za studio na za u-DJ ambazo disco ilizianzisha.[30]: 139 

DJ Kool Herc mnamo 1999

Ilikuwa mtindo kwa wachezaji kutumia instrumental break (sehemu ya ala pekee) katika wimbo ili kuonyesha miondoko yao bora. Wengine wangeacha hata kucheza hadi sehemu hiyo ya ala inapofika.[30]: 225f  Desturi hiyo ilijulikana kama "breakdancing", na iliongeza mahitaji ya 'breaks' ambazo ma-DJ wangeanza kuzitoa hivi karibuni.[63] Wachezaji hawa walijulikana kama "B-girls" na "B-boys". "B" inaweza kuwa kifupi cha "break", "beat", "battle", au "Bronx" kulingana na nani anayeitumia.[64]

Moja ya klabu maarufu zaidi ilikuwa Plaza Tunnel katika ghorofa ya chini ya Concourse Plaza Hotel ambapo DJ John Brown alitumbuiza. Ili kuwafanya watu waendelee kucheza, angechanganya rekodi mbalimbali kama "It's Just Begun" ya Jimmy Castor Bunch, "Get Into Something" ya The Isley Brothers, "Moment of Truth" ya Earth, Wind & Fire, "Get Ready" ya Rare Earth, "Maggie" ya Redbone, na "I'm a Man" ya Chicago.[53]: 38 

Wacheza breakdance walithamini uhalisi. Walitengeneza miondoko ya kipekee ambayo wachezaji wengine wangewaiga tu ili kuwashinda.[65] Mkazo kwenye ubunifu ulienea hadi kwa ma-DJ ambao wangeshindana (battle). Wangeweza hata kuiga desturi ya Jamaika ya kuondoa lebo za rekodi ili kuweka siri 'breaks' zao kwa ma-DJ wengine.[17]: 16  Ma-DJ wengi wa mapema wa hip-hop walikuwa wahamiaji kutoka Caribbean.[66][67] Mbinu walizotumia kutengeneza nyenzo mpya kutoka kwa rekodi za vinyl zilizopo zilikuwa ngeni kwa dub music ya Jamaika.[68][29]: 100  Hip-hop ilianza kukuza kanuni zake za kimaadili zilizothamini ukweli na werevu kuliko uigaji usio na tija.[27]: 692, 742 

Ma-DJ waligundua 'breaks' fulani kuwa maarufu sana kutoka kwa rekodi kama "Listen To Me" ya Baby Huey, "Give It Up or Turnit a Loose" ya James Brown, "Son of Scorpio" ya Dennis Coffey, "Bra" ya Cymande, "Funky Music Is the Thing" ya Dynamic Corvettes, "Fruit Song" ya Jeannie Reynolds, pamoja na "Apache" na "Bongo Rock" za Incredible Bongo Band.[69][30]: 226f  DJ Kool Herc aligundua njia ya kurefusha sehemu hizo kwa kupishanisha kati ya nakala mbili za rekodi ile ile. Umaarufu wa kwanza wa Herc ulitokana na mfumo wake wa sauti uliokuwa na amplifaya ya McIntosh Laboratory na safu mbili za spika za Shure. Aliupa jina la "The Herculords", na ulimpatia wafuasi wengi sana.[19]: 33 

Ma-DJ wawili wakitumia santuri na mchanganyiko (mixer)

Mbinu yake ya kucheza 'breaks' ilikuwa ghafi sana, hata hivyo. Herc angekadiria tu mahali ambapo 'break' ilipo huku akijaribu kuirefusha. Mara nyingi, alilazimika kuzungumza wakati wa mpito kwa sababu sehemu hizo hazikuwa zikiendana vyema.[30]: 227  Ilikuwa ni ma-DJ kama Grand Wizzard Theodore, Jazzy Jay, na Grandmaster Flash ndio walioiboresha mbinu hiyo. Walitengeneza mbinu inayojulikana kama needle dropping kwa kuweka 'breaks' kwa usahihi kabisa kwenye spika za masikioni ili kutengeneza mpito mkamilifu kati ya santuri mbili.[21][19]: 36  Wakati 'break' ya kwanza inapomalizika, wangebadilisha kwenda kwenye santuri ya pili ambayo ilikuwa tayari mwanzoni mwa 'break'. Wakati rekodi ya pili ikicheza, wangeizungusha rekodi ya kwanza kuelekea nyuma hadi mwanzo wa 'break' na kuirudisha wakati ya pili inapomalizika. Mbinu hii iliruhusu 'break' kurefushwa kwa muda usiojulikana. Sehemu hizi zilizorefushwa zilikuja kujulikana kama "breakbeat".[17]: 15  Rekodi inayocheza inapozungushwa kurudi nyuma, sauti inaharibika. Athari hiyo ilianza kupendwa na hatimaye ikabadilika kuwa mbinu ya hip-hop inayojulikana kama "scratching".[70]

Sherehe za mitaani (Block parties)

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Nje ya klabu za kucheza, mahali pakubwa zaidi palipokuza hip-hop palikuwa sherehe za mitaani. Ma-DJ wangeunganisha mifumo yao ya sauti kwenye taa za mitaani.[71] Mwenyeji mmoja mashuhuri wa sherehe hizi mapema miaka ya 1970 alikuwa Disco King Mario.[72][73]: 6  Kama kiongozi wa Black Spades kutoka Majengo ya Bronxdale, Mario alitegemea genge hilo kulinda matukio yake.[74][75]

1520 Sedgwick Avenue huko Bronx, mahali pa sherehe ya Cindy Campbell

Kool Herc alianza kurefusha 'breaks' kwenye sherehe ya kurudi shule ya rent party ambayo dada yake Cindy Campbell aliiandaa katika chumba cha burudani cha jengo lao huko 1520 Sedgwick Avenue upande wa kusini magharibi wa Bronx.[76] Tarehe ya sherehe hiyo, Agosti 11, 1973, imekuwa ikitangazwa kwa nguvu kama "Kuzaliwa kwa Hip-Hop".[77]

Jisomee

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  • David Toop (1984/1991). Rap Attack II: African Rap To Global Hip Hop. New York. New York: Serpent's Tail. ISBN 1-85242-243-2.
  • McLeod, Kembrew. Interview with Chuck D and Hank Shocklee. 2002. Stay Free Magazine.
  • Yes Yes Y'All: Oral History of Hip Hop's First Decade. Fricke, Jim and Charlie Ahearn (eds). Experience Music Project. Perseus Books Group. ISBN 0-306-81184-7
  • Corvino, Daniel and Livernoche, Shawn (2000). A Brief History of Rhyme and Bass: Growing Up With Hip Hop. Tinicum, PA: Xlibris Corporation/The Lightning Source, Inc. ISBN 1-4010-2851-9
  • Chang, Jeff. "Can't Stop, Won't Stop".
  • Rose, Tricia (1994). "Black Noise". Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6275-0
  • Potter, Russell (1995) Spectacular Vernaculars: Hip-Hop and the Politics of Postmodernism. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-2626-2
  • Light, Alan (ed). (1999). The VIBE History of Hip-Hop. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80503-7
  • George, Nelson (2000, rev. 2005). Hip-Hop America. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-028022-7
  • Fricke, Jim and Ahearn, Charlie (eds). (2002). Yes Yes Y'All: The Experience Music Project Oral History of Hip Hop's First Decade. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81184-7
  • Kitwana, Bakar (2004). The State of Hip-Hop Generation: how hip-hop's culture movement is evolving into political power. Retrieved 4 Desemba 2006. From Ohio Link Database.

Tazama pia

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Marejeo

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  1. ↑ "Hip-hop, Adv.", Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. December 2024.
  2. ↑ A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, vol. 5, H to K. Imehaririwa na James A.H. Murray. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901. 296.
  3. ↑ Villiers, George. The Rehearsal. London: Thomas Dring, 1630. 30.
  4. ↑ Cummings, Elizabeth. "Spring Weather", Wide Awake, juzuu ya 16. Boston: D. Lothrop & Company, 1883. 388–9
  5. ↑ Douglas, Norman. London Street Games. St. Catherine Press, 1916. 51, 76–7.
  6. ↑ "Hop, N. (2)", Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford UP, September 2024.
  7. ↑ The Dovells, "You Can't Sit Down". Parkway, 1963.
  8. ↑ Lawrence, Tim. Life and Death on the New York Dance Floor, 1980-1983. Duke University Press, 2016.
  9. ↑ "Hip, Hop, Hip, Hop Hibbyhibby Hop." The Observer. June 15, 1986. 27.
  10. ↑ Flipping, Robert Jr. "Hollyburgh Swingers 'If You Funk Us, We'll Funk You'". New Pittsburgh Courier, February 24, 1979.
  11. ↑ Caramanica, Jon. "Lovebug Starski, Hip-Hop Trailblazer, Is Dead at 57". The New York Times, February 9, 2018. B8.
  12. ↑ JayQuan, "Remembering Keef Cowboy", Furious5.net. Imehifadhiwa Machi 17, 2006.
  13. ↑ Ewoodzie, Joseph C. Break Beats in the Bronx: Rediscovering Hip-Hop's Early Years. University of North Carolina Press, 2017. 129.
  14. ↑ Chang, Jeff. "How Hip-Hop Got Its Name". Medium. April 10, 2016.
  15. ↑ Sugarhill Gang. "Rapper's Delight". Sugar Hill, 1979.
  16. ↑ Holman, Michael. "An Interview with DJ Africa Bambaata of the Zulu Nation," East Village Eye. January 1982, 22.
  17. 1 2 3 4 The VIBE History of Hip-Hop. Imehaririwa na Alan Light. Three Rivers Press, 1999.
  18. ↑ Stearns, David Patrick. "Hip-Hop Makes its Mark". News-Press, July 6, 1984. 43.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Hager, Steven. Hip Hop: The Illustrated History of Break Dancing, Rap Music, and Graffiti. St Martins Press, 1984.
  20. ↑ Randel, Don Michael, mhariri. "Hip Hop." The Harvard Dictionary of Music, toleo la 4, Harvard University Press, 2003.
  21. 1 2 Tate, Greg, Light, Alan, Ray, Michael. "Hip-hop", Encyclopædia Britannica. Apr 14, 2025
  22. ↑ "Hip-hop, N." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, December 2024.
  23. ↑ Kugelberg, Johan. Born in the Bronx. Oxford University Press, 2007. 17.
  24. 1 2 Chang, Jeff. Can't Stop Won't Stop: A History of the Hip Hop Generation. St. Martin's Press, 2005.
  25. ↑ Gosa, Travis L. "The Fifth Element: Knowledge." The Cambridge Companion to Hip-Hop. Mhariri Justin A. Williams. Cambridge University Press, 2015. 56–70.
  26. ↑ McCabe, Allyson. "How the Fantastic Four took Double Dutch to new heights", Oregon Public Broadcasting. Dec 6, 2022.
  27. 1 2 KRS-One. The Gospel of Hip Hop: First Instrument. Powerhouse Books, 2009.
  28. ↑ Nasir, Noreen. "In the beginning, there was the Bronx", Associated Press. August 9, 2023.
  29. 1 2 3 Davis, Stephen. Reggae Bloodlines: In Search of the Music and Culture of Jamaica. Da Capo Press, 1992.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Brewster, Bill and Frank Broughton. Last Night a DJ Saved My Life. Headline, 1999.
  31. ↑ Augustyn, Heather. "Spinning Wheels: The Circular Evolution of Jive, Toasting, and Rap," Caribbean Quarterly 61 (1). 2015. 60–74.
  32. ↑ Hilmes, Michele. Radio Voices: American Broadcasting, 1922-1952. University of Minnesota Press, 1997. 273.
  33. ↑ Neumann, Friedrich. "Hip Hop: Origins, Characteristics and Creative Processes." The World of Music, juzuu ya 42, na. 1, 2000, uk. 51–63.
  34. ↑ Jenkins, Earnestine. "The 'Voice of Memphis:' WDIA, Nat D. Williams, and Black Radio Culture in the Early Civil Rights Era", Tennessee Historical Quarterly, juzuu ya 65, na. 3, 2006. 259.
  35. ↑ George, Marsha Washington. Black Radio...Winner Takes All: America's 1St Black DJs. Xlibris US, 2002. 100f
  36. ↑ Dr. Hepcat. The Jives of Dr. Hepcat. Lavada Durst, 1953. 7.
  37. ↑ "John R. Richbourg", Tennessee Radio Hall of Fame. Ilifikiwa Mei 21, 2025.
  38. ↑ Cox, Jim. Music Radio: The Great Performers and Programs of the 1920s Through Early 1960s. McFarland, 2024. 157f.
  39. ↑ Sprechstimme ni mtindo wa sauti kati ya kuongea na kuimba, uliotokana na muziki wa classical (hasa Arnold Schoenberg), ambapo sauti hupanda na kushuka bila kufuata melody kamili; katika hip hop, unafanana na namna rappers wanavyodeliver mistari kwa rhythm na tone badala ya kuimba kikamilifu.
  40. ↑ Griots ni wanahistoria, wasimulizi wa hadithi, washairi na wanamuziki wa jadi kutoka Afrika Magharibi, hasa katika jamii za Mande. Kazi yao kuu ni kuhifadhi na kusimulia historia, nasaba za familia, na utamaduni kupitia masimulizi na muziki (mara nyingi wakitumia ala kama kora).
  41. ↑ Gioia, Ted. The History of Jazz, Toleo la 3. Oxford University Press, 2021. 8.
  42. ↑ Campbell, K.E. Gettin' Our Groove On: Rhetoric, Language, and Literacy for the Hip Hop Generation. Wayne State University Press, 2005. 30ff.
  43. ↑ Sarachik, Justin. "The Jubalaires Were Doing Gospel Rap Back in the 1940s". Rapzilla. July 11, 2016.
  44. ↑ "The Artist" katika Muhammad Ali: A Transcendent Life, University of Louisville Muhammad Ali Institute na Maktaba za Chuo Kikuu. 2021.
  45. ↑ Taylor, Yuval na Jake Austen. Darkest America: Black Minstrelsy from Slavery to Hip-Hop. W. W. Norton, 2012. 236.
  46. ↑ Reeves, Mosi. "Muhammad Ali: World's Greatest Boxer Was Also Hip-Hop Pioneer", Rolling Stone. June 4, 2016.
  47. ↑ Rubin, Mik. "Muhammad Ali: 4 Ways He Changed America". Rolling Stone. June 5, 2016.
  48. ↑ Cepeda, Raquel. And It Don't Stop: The Best American Hip-Hop Journalism of the Last 25 Years. Faber & Faber, 2004. xvi.
  49. ↑ "Jalal Mansur Nuriddin: farewell to the 'grandfather of rap'", The Guardian, 6 June 2018.
  50. ↑ Veal, Michael E. Dub: Songscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae. Wesleyan University Press, 2007. 52.
  51. ↑ Moskowitz, David V. Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall. ABC-CLIO, 2005. 94.
  52. ↑ Blum, Bruno. Le Rap Est Né En JamaïQue. Castor Astral, 2009.
  53. 1 2 Hitilafu ya kutaja: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Breaking
  54. ↑ Trapp, Erin. "The Push and Pull of Hip-Hop". American Behavioral Scientist. 48 (11), 2005. 1482–1495.
  55. ↑ Leach, Andrew. "'One Day It'll All Make Sense': Hip-Hop and Rap Resources for Music Librarians". Notes. 65 (1), 2008. 9–37.
  56. ↑ Castillo-Garsow, Melissa; Nichols, Jason. La Verdad: An International Dialogue on Hip Hop Latinidades. Ohio University Press, 2016. ix.
  57. ↑ Thompson, Robert Farris. "Hip Hop 101", in Droppin' Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture. Imehaririwa na William Eric Perkins. Temple University Press, 1996.
  58. ↑ Crossley, Scott. "Metaphorical Conceptions in Hip-Hop Music". African American Review. 39 (4), 2005. 501–512.
  59. ↑ Alridge, Derrick P.; Stewart, James B. "Introduction: Hip Hop in History: Past, Present, and Future", The Journal of African American History, 90 (3), 2005. 190–195.
  60. ↑ Ogbar, Jeffrey. "'Yele, Yele': Caribbean Identity and the Rubric of Race in U.S-Based Hip-Hop Archived Aprili 14, 2021, at the Wayback Machine", University of Florida Digital Collections, May 2001.
  61. ↑ George, Nelson. The Death of Rhythm & Blues. Plume, 1988.
  62. ↑ Asante, Molefi K. It's Bigger Than Hip Hop: The Rise of the Post-Hip-Hop Generation. St. Martin's Press, 2008. 9f.
  63. ↑ McNamee, David. "Hey, what's that sound: Turntablism". The Guardian, January 11, 2010.
  64. ↑ Schloss, Joseph G. Foundation: B-Boys, B-girls and Hip-Hop Culture in New York. Oxford University Press, 2009. 59.
  65. ↑ Vernon, Jim. Hip Hop, Hegel, and the Art of Emancipation: Let's Get Free. Springer International Publishing AG, 2018. 108.
  66. ↑ Karon, Tony. "'Hip-Hop Nation' Is Exhibit A for America's Latest Cultural Revolution", Time, September 22, 2000.
  67. ↑ Farley, Christopher John. "Rock's New Spin", Time, October 18, 1999.
  68. ↑ The Sound Of Channel One: King Tubby Connection. Liner Notes. Motion Records, 1999.
  69. ↑ Hitilafu ya kutaja: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Billboard
  70. ↑ "Birthplace Of Hip Hop", History Detectives. Msimu wa 6, sehemu ya 11.
  71. ↑ Lee, Jennifer 8. "Tenants Might Buy Birthplace of Hip-Hop", The New York Times. January 15, 2008.
  72. ↑ "Hip-hop icon 'Disco King Mario' honored with street co-naming as part genre's 50th birthday celebrations", News 12. July 1, 2023.
  73. ↑ Abrams, Jonathan. The Come Up: An Oral History of the Rise of Hip-Hop. Crown, 2023.
  74. ↑ 3stacks, Andrea. "Beyond DJ Kool Herc: The Unsung Pioneers and Communities That Shaped Hip-Hop's Early Evolution", The Hip Hop Museum. July 16, 2024. Ilifikiwa Juni 3, 2025.
  75. ↑ Falls, Niya. "Forgotten Founding Father: Disco King Mario". Hip Hop Golden Age, August 16, 2019.
  76. ↑ Gonzales, Michael A. "Party Over Here: An Oral History of Kool Herc's Historic Back-to-School Jam", Mass Appeal. August 11, 2017. Imehifadhiwa Aprili 2, 2019.
  77. ↑ Laurence, Rebecca. "Culture – 40 years on from the party where hip hop was born", BBC. August 9, 2013.

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