Tazama chanzo cha Ustaarabu wa Indus

[[Picha:IVC_Map.png|thumb|250x250px|Ukubwa na mtandao wa ustaarabu wa Bonde la Indus.]]
'''Ustaarabu wa Indus''' (pia: '''utamaduni wa Harappa'''; kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Indus Valley civilization'') ulikuwa [[ustaarabu]] wa  [[Zama za Shaba]] ([[3300 KK|3300]]-[[1500 KK]]; kipindi cha kukomaa kikiwa mnamo [[2000 KK]]) <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shinde|first=Vasant.S.|last2=Kim|first2=Y.J.|last3=Woo|first3=E.J.|last4=Jadhav|first4=N.|last5=et|first5=al.|year=2018|title=Archaeological and anthropological studies on the Harappan cemetery of Rakhigarhi, India|journal=PLOS One Volume, 13(2), e0192299}}</ref> uliopatikana katika bonde la [[mto Indus]] katika [[Pakistan]] na [[Uhindi]] ya leo. 

== Ugunduzi ==
Habari zake zimepatikana kwa njia ya [[Akiolojia|uvumbuzi wa kiakiolojia]] kuanzia [[miaka ya 1880]].

[[Mji]] wa kwanza kugunduliwa ulikuwa [[Harappa]] iliyoangaliwa na [[Mwingereza]] Masson aliyedhani ni mmoja wa miji iliyotembelewa na [[Aleksanda Mkuu]]; [[utafiti]] wa baadaye ulionyesha [[umri]] wake ni wa kale zaidi. [[Mwanaakiolojia]] Mhindi R. D. Banerji alitambua mnamo [[1923]] kwamba mabaki ya Harappa yalifanana na yale ya [[Mohenjo-daro]] iliyopo [[kilomita]] 600 upande wa [[kusini]]. Baada ya kugunduliwa kwa sehemu nyingine yenye [[maghofu]] ilionekana kwamba hayo ni mabaki ya ustaarabu ulioanza mnamo mwaka 3000 KK na kuenea katika bonde la mto Indus pamoja na [[Tawimto|matawimito]] yake makubwa. Pamoja na miji mingi midogo mabaki ya miji mikubwa mitano yamegunduliwa ambayo ni [[:en:Harappa|Harappa]], [[:en:Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo-daro]] na [[:en:Ganeriwala|Ganeriwala]] katika Pakistan ya leo na [[:en:Dholavira|Dholavira]] na [[:en:Rakhigarhi|Rakhigarhi]] upande wa Uhindi ya leo.<ref name="ConinghamYoung20152">{{harvnb|Coningham|Young|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA192 192]}}. "More than 1,000&nbsp;settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure&nbsp;6.2). These are Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain, Harappa in the western Punjab, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, Dholavira in western Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250&nbsp;hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100&nbsp;hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80&nbsp;hectares each."</ref>.  

== Miji yake ==
Ustaarabu huo ulianza wakati wa [[Zama za Shaba]] ukaendelea kustawi hadi takriban mwaka 1500 [[KK]]. Kwa hiyo ilidumu [[muda]] mrefu sana. <ref>Allchin, Bridget 1997. ''Origins of a Civilization: the prehistory and early archaeology of South Asia''. New York: Viking.</ref> 

Watu wa Bonde la Indus walikuwa [[mjenzi|wajenzi]] hodari. Miji yao ilipangwa vizuri. Ilikuwa na mfumo wa [[majitaka]], kwa kuweka [[mfereji]] wa majitaka kando ya kila [[mtaa]]. Hakuna mifano mingine wa [[miundombinu]] hiyo katika sehemu nyingine za [[Dunia]] kwa wakati ule. [[Nyumba]] zilikuwa na [[ghorofa]] moja au mbili, na nyingi zilikuwa na chumba cha [[bafu]] lakini kulikuwa pia na bafu za umma. [[Maji]] yalipelekwa mjini na kugawiwa kwa [[Tangi|matangi]] ya nyumba. Nyumba zilikuwa pia na [[choo]], na uchafu wa nyumba jirani ulipitishwa kwa kumwaga maji katika [[bomba|mabomba]] ya kitofali hadi [[shimo]] kubwa; mashimo hayo yalisafishwa baada ya muda, labda kwa kutumia yaliyomo kama [[samadi]] [[shamba|mashambani]].

Tofauti na tamaduni nyingine za [[milenia]] ya tatu na ya pili KK katika [[Misri ya Kale]] na [[Mesopotamia]] hawakuacha majengo makubwa kama [[Hekalu|mahekalu]] au [[jumba|majumba]] ya kifalme. Majengo makubwa zaidi yaliyoweza kutambuliwa yanaonekana kuwa [[ghala]] za [[nafaka]].

=== Maandishi ===
[[Picha:Indus seal impression.jpg|thumb|Maandishi ya ustaarabu wa Indus.]]
Watu walitumia aina ya [[maandishi]] lakini hadi leo haijawezekana kuyasoma. Kwa hiyo haijulikani walitumia [[lugha]] gani. [[Mwandiko]] ulitumia takribani [[alama]] 400 na mifano mingi inaonekana kama mabaki ya [[mhuri|mihuri]] iliyoonyesha asili ya [[bidhaa]] fulani au yaliyomo ya chombo. Maandishi yote ni mafupi sana yenye alama chache tu.

=== Mwisho ===
Haijulikani ni nini kilichosababisha mwisho wa ustaarabu huo. Tangu mwaka 2000 KK kuna [[dalili]] za kushuka kwa hali ya [[uchumi]]. Mnamo mwaka [[1700 KK]] miji mingi haikukaliwa tena. Utafiti wa masalia ya [[binadamu]] kutoka [[Kaburi|makaburi]] ya siku zile unaonyesha kuongezeka kwa [[majeruhi]] na dalili ya [[magonjwa]] kama [[ukoma]] na [[kifua kikuu]].<ref name="Schug2012">{{cite journal|author1=Robbins-Schug, G.|author2=Gray, K.M.|author3=Mushrif, V.|author4=Sankhyan, A.R.|date=November 2012|title=A Peaceful Realm? Trauma and Social Differentiation at Harappa|url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/G_Robbins_Schug_Peaceful_2012.pdf|journal=International Journal of Paleopathology|volume=2|issue=2–3|pages=136–147|doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012|pmid=29539378}}</ref> Wengine walifikiri ilikuwa labda uhamiaji wa [[Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya#Nadharia ya asili na usambazaji|makabila ya Kihindi-Kiulaya]] walioanza kuingia Uhindi mwisho wa milenia ya pili. Wengine wanaona ilikuwa mabadiliko ya [[tabianchi]] hasa kipindi kirefu cha [[ukame]], pamoja na mfululizo wa [[Tetemeko la ardhi|matetemeko]] ya [[ardhi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grijalva|first1=K.A.|last2=Kovach|first2=L.R.|last3=Nur|first3=A.M.|date=1 December 2006|title=Evidence for Tectonic Activity During the Mature Harappan Civilization, 2600-1800&nbsp;BCE|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253829072|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=2006|pages=T51D–1553|bibcode=2006AGUFM.T51D1553G}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prasad|first1=Manika|last2=Nur|first2=Amos|date=1 December 2001|title=Tectonic Activity during the Harappan Civilization|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253859373|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=2001|pages=U52B–07|bibcode=2001AGUFM.U52B..07P}}</ref>.

== Picha ==
<gallery>
Picha:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|[[Sanamu]] inayoitwa "Mfalme-Kuhani" (priest-king), [[Mohenjo-Daro]], kipindi cha ustaarabu wa Idus, [[Jumba la makumbusho]] la kitaifa, [[Karachi]], Pakistan
Picha:IndusValleySeals.JPG|Mihuri iliyopatikana kwenye tovuti za ustaarabu wa Bonde la Indus
Picha:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg|Mohenjodaro Sindh
</gallery>

== Marejeo ==
{{Reflist}}

== Viungo vya Nje ==
{{Commons category|Indus Valley Civilization}}
{{Wikivoyage|Mohenjo-daro}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.harappa.com/ Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125125109/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/index.html An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110629091226/http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India]
{{mbegu-historia}}
[[Jamii:Zama za Kale]]
[[Jamii:Historia ya Uhindi]]
[[Jamii:Historia ya Pakistan]]