Tazama chanzo cha Kilimanjaro (volkeno)

[[Picha:Der-Kilimandscharo.jpg|thumb|Kilimanjaro mnamo 1911]]
[[Picha:ETH-BIB-Blick ins Kraterloch des Kibo aus 6500 m Höhe-Kilimanjaroflug 1929-30-LBS MH02-07-0119.tif|thumb|Picha ya kwanza ya angani ya Kibo iliyochukuliwa na Walter Mittelholzer mnamo 1929]]
[[Picha:Elephants at Amboseli national park against Mount Kilimanjaro.jpg|thumb|Tembo kwenye Hifadhi ya Kitaifa ya Amboseli dhidi ya Mlima Kilimanjaro]]
[[Picha:Moshi panorama edit1.jpg|thumb|Mlima Kilimanjaro kama unavyoonekana kutoka manispaa ya Moshi katika Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro]]
[[Picha:Kilimanjaro 3D - version 1.gif|thumb|mfano wa kilele cha mlima kilimanjaro]]
[[Picha:Kilimanjaro 2006-08-13.JPG|thumb|250px|Mlima Kilimanjaro unavyoonekana kutoka [[Moshi (mji)|Moshi]]]]
[[Picha:Kibo summit of Mt Kilimanjaro 001.JPG|thumb|250px|Kilele cha Kibo kwenye mlima Kilimanjaro]]
'''Kilimanjaro''' ni [[jina]] la [[mlima]] mrefu kuliko yote [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]]. Mlima huo uko nchini [[Tanzania]] katika [[Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro]]. Una [[urefu]] wa [[mita]] 5,895 ([[futi]] 19,340).

Hali halisi Kilimanjaro ni zaidi ya mlima tu, ni kama [[Safu ya milima|safu ndogo ya milima]] mitatu: Kibo, Mawenzi na Shira. Hiyo mitatu inaonekana kama vilele vitatu vya mlima mmoja, hivyo si vibaya kusema Kilimanjaro ni mlima.

[[Jiolojia|Kijiolojia]] Kilimanjaro ni [[volkeno]] iliyolala kwa sasa. Kwenye [[kilele]] cha [[Kibo]] [[gesi]] bado inatoka. Kumbukumbu ya wenyeji ina habari ya [[mlipuko]] mnamo [[mwaka]] [[1730]].

Kilele cha juu cha Kibo kinaitwa [[Uhuru]]. Mtu wa kwanza kufika kileleni hapo alikuwa [[Johannes Kinyala Lauwo]] kutoka [[Marangu]] aliyewaongoza [[Wajerumani]] [[Hans Meyer]] na [[Ludwig Purtscheller]] [[tarehe]] [[6 Oktoba]] [[1889]] wakati wa [[ukoloni]] wa [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani|Ujerumani]]. Wakati ule waliita ncha ya juu "Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze" ''(kwa [[Kijerumani]]: Kilele cha Kaisari Wilhelm)'' kwa heshima ya [[Kaisari]] wa [[Ujerumani]].

Kibo ina [[theluji]] na [[barafuto]] ndogo kadhaa.

==Jina==
[[File:Meyers b14 s0300a.jpg|thumb|350px|Ramani ya 1888 inayoonyesha jina "''Kilima-Ndscharo''" katika [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]].]]
[[Asili]] ya jina "Kilimanjaro" haijulikani kikamilifu. Vyanzo vya kimaandishi vinajulikana tangu takriban mwaka [[1860]] ambapo [[wapelelezi]] [[Wazungu]] walitumia jina hilo katika taarifa zao wakidai "Kilimanjaro" ni jina la [[Kiswahili]].<ref name="Krapf">{{cite book | author1=Johann Ludwig Krapf | author2=Ernest George Ravenstein | title=Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours, During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa: Together with Journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia and Khartum, and a Coasting Voyage from Nombaz to Cape Delgado | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z78NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA255 | year=1860 | publisher=Trübner and Company, Paternoster Row. | page=255}}</ref> Pamoja na umbo hili kulikuwa pia na tahajia ya sehemu mbili ama "Kilima-Njaro"<ref>{{cite web | url=http://words.fromoldbooks.org/Wood-NuttallEncyclopaedia/k/kilima-njaro.html | title=Kilima-Njaro | publisher=fromoldbooks.org | work=1907 Nuttall Encyclopædia of General Knowledge | date=1907 | accessdate=16 July 2015 | author=James Wood}}</ref> au kwa namna ya Kijerumani “Kilima-Ndscharo”.

[[Johann Ludwig Krapf]] aliandika mnamo [[1860]] kuwa [[Waswahili]] kwenye [[pwani]] waliita mlima huo "Kilimanjaro". Alisema pia ya kwamba hao Waswahili walieleza maana yake kuwa ama “mlima mkubwa” au “mlima wa misafara” ingawa mwenyewe hakukubali maelezo hayo. Kwa elezo la mwisho "Kilima" kilimaanisha  "mlima" na "Jaro" labda "misafara".<ref name="Krapf"/>

[[Jim Thompson]] aliandika mnamo [[1885]] kuwa jina Kilima-Njaro lilichukuliwa mara nyingi kuwa na maana ya "mlima mkubwa" lakini mwenyewe alipendelea maelezo tofauti yaliyosema "mlima mweupe". <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PETAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Through Masai land: a journey of exploration among the snowclad volcanic mountains and strange tribes of eastern equatorial Africa'', authored by Johann Ludwig Krapf and Ernest George Ravenstein, Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, London, 1887]</ref> "Njaro" ni Kiswahili cha Zamani kwa "ng’ara".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/tanzania.htm#PIA03355 | title=Perspective with Landsat Overlay | publisher=California Institute of Technology | work=SRTM TANZANIA IMAGES | accessdate=16 July 2015}}</ref>
 
Vivyo hivyo [[Krapf]] aliandika ya kwamba aliwahi kuwatembela [[Wakamba]] mnamo [[1849]] walioita mlima “Kima jaJeu”  yaani mlima mweupe <ref>{{cite book | author1=Johann Ludwig Krapf | author2=Ernest George Ravenstein | title=Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours, During an Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa: Together with Journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia and Khartum, and a Coasting Voyage from Nombaz to Cape Delgado | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z78NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA544 | year=1860 | publisher=Trübner and Company, Paternoster Row. | page=544}}</ref> Leo hii Wakamba wangesema “Kiima Kyeu” na elezo hili limekubaliwa na [[watafiti]] mbalimbali.

Wengine huona ya kwamba ni Wazungu wasiojua Kiswahili vema waliochanganya “mlima” na “Kilima”.

Wengine wamejaribu kuona msingi wa jina katika [[lugha]] ya [[Kichagga]]. Hapo wanadai uwezekano kuwa "Kileman" limetokana na [[neno]] la Kichagga "kileme" linalomaanisha “kinachoshinda” au neno "kilelema" linalomaanisha "kilichokuwa vigumu, kilichoshindikana". Katika hoja hiyo "Jaro" imetokana na Kichagga “njaare” (aina ya [[Ndege (mnyama)|ndege]], au kufuatana na wengine [[chui]]) au kutoka neno “jyaro” ([[msafara]]). Elezo lingine ni kwamba [[Wachagga]] walisema mlima huo hauwezi kupandwa "kilemanjaare" au "kilemajyaro" na [[wapagazi]] au wafasiri kutoka pwani waliichukua kuwa jina la mlima na kutafsiri vile kwa Wazungu.

Tangu [[miaka ya 1880]] mlima umekuwa sehemu ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] ukaitwa "Kilima-Ndscharo" kwa Kijerumani.<ref>Briggs, Philip (1996): "Guide to Tanzania; 2nd edition." Bradt Guides.</ref>

Tarehe [[6 Oktoba]] [[1889]] [[Hans Meyer]] alikuwa mtu wa kwanza anayejulikana kupanda mlima na kufika hadi kilele cha Kibo. Alichagua jina la "Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze" ("Ncha ya [[Kaisari Wilhelm II|Kaisari Wilhelm]]"<ref> Haieleweki kama alitoa jina kwa heshima ya [[Kaisari Wilhelm I]] (aliyeunganisha Ujerumani) au [[Mwana|mwanawe]] [[Kaisari Wilhelm II]] (aliyekuwa [[mtawala]] tangu mwaka [[1888]] tu)</ref>).<ref>{{cite conference | url=http://icaci.org/files/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC2003/Papers/110.pdf | title=GERMAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CARTOGRAPHY OF SOUTH WEST AND EAST AFRICA FROM MID 19th CENTURY TO WORLD WAR I | publisher=University of Technology Darmstadt | accessdate=16 July 2015 | author=Demhardt, I.J.}}</ref> 

Jina hilo lilitumika hadi [[Tanzania]] ilipoundwa mwaka [[1964]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Further Notes on the Kibo Inner Crater and Glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya | author=P. C. Spink | journal=The Geographical Journal | year=1945 | volume=106 | issue=5-6 | pages=213 | doi=10.2307/1788958 | jstor=1788958}}</ref> na kilele kubadilishiwa jina kuwa "Uhuru", likiwa na maana ya "Kilele cha Uhuru" <ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1965_files/AJ%201965%20320-330%20Dangar%20Alpine%20Notes.pdf | title=Dangar Alpine Notes | author=D. F. O. Dangar | journal=The Alpine Journal | year=1965 | volume=70 | issue=310-311 | pages=328}}</ref>

==Jiolojia ya mlima na tabia za kijiografia==
Kilimanjaro inapanda hadi mita 4877 juu ya [[tambarare]] karibu na [[Moshi (mji)|mji wa Moshi]] uliopo miguuni pake. Hii inafanya kilele chake kuwa mita 5895 juu ya [[uwiano wa bahari]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web | url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/403 | title=Kilimanjaro National Park | publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre | work=World Heritage List | accessdate=16 July 2015}}</ref> 

Kilimanjaro ni volkeno ya [[rusu]] iliyojengwa na rusu za [[majivu]], [[zaha]] na [[mata]] nyingine. Ni volkeno ndefu kuliko zote [[duniani]] nje ya [[Amerika Kusini]]. <ref name="HighVolc">{{cite web | url=http://www.volcanolive.com/kilimanjaro.html | title=Mt Kilimanjaro Volcano | publisher=Volcano Live - John Seach | accessdate=22 November 2015}}</ref>

Vilele vitatu vya kivolkeno juu ya Kilimanjaro ni 
* Kibo iliyo juu zaidi
* Mawenzi yenye [[kimo]] cha mita 5149<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=2084 | title=Mawenzi | publisher=Interactive Outdoors, Inc | work=Peakware | accessdate=16 July 2015 | archivedate=2016-03-04 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192427/http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=2084 }}</ref>
* Shira yenye urefu wa mita 4005.<ref name="Kaser">{{cite journal | url=https://www.geo.umass.edu/climate/tanzania/pubs/cullen_etal_2006_grl.pdf | title=Kilimanjaro Glaciers: Recent areal extent from satellite data and new interpretation of observed 20th century retreat rates | author=Nicolas J. Cullen, Thomas Mölg, Georg Kaser, Khalid Hussein, Konrad Steffen, and Douglas R. Hardy | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | year=2006 | volume=33 | issue=16 | doi=10.1029/2006GL027084 | format=PDF | bibcode=2006GeoRL..3316502C}}</ref> Vyote vitatu vina [[kasoko]].

Mawenzi na Shira ni [[volkeno zimwe]] lakini Kibo ni volkeno iliyolala, ila inaweza kuwaka tena. <ref name="NonnottePhilippe">{{cite journal | author1=Nonnotte, Philippe | author2=Hervé Guillou | author3 = Bernard Le Gall | author4 = Mathieu Benoit | author5 = Joseph Cotten | author6 = Stéphane Scaillet | title=New K-Ar age determinations of Kilimanjaro volcano in the North Tanzanian diverging rift, East Africa | journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research | year=2008 | volume=173 | issue=1-2 | pages=99–112 | accessdate=29 July 2015 | doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.12.042 | url=http://hal.univ-brest.fr/file/index/docid/304458/filename/Nonnotte_et_al.J.Volc.Geoth.Res-08.pdf}}</ref>

Uhuru ni sehemu ya juu kwenye ukingo wa [[kasoko]] ya Kibo. [[Taasisi]] ya [[Tanzania National Parks Authority]] <ref name="TNP">{{cite web | url=http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/kili.html | title=Mount Kilimanjaro National Park | publisher=Tanzania National Parks | work=Tanzania National Parks | accessdate=16 July 2015 | archivedate=2012-09-23 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923032157/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/kili.html | =https://web.archive.org/web/20120923032157/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/kili.html }}</ref> na [[UNESCO]] zinataja [[kimo]] cha Uhuru Peak kuwa mita 5895. Kimo hicho kimetokana na [[upimaji]] uliofanyika wakati wa [[ukoloni]] wa [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1952]]. <ref name="Digital">{{cite web | url=http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1142/paper12.pdf | title=The New Digital Orthometric Elevation Model of Kilimanjaro | publisher=CEUR Workshop Proceedings | accessdate=16 July 2015 | author=Pascal Sirguey, Nicolas J. Cullen and Jorge Filipe Dos Santos}}</ref> Tangu upimaji ule kimo cha mlima kimepimwa tena: kinaonyesha kuwa mlima unapungua polepole. Kipimo kilikuwa mita 5892 mwaka [[1999]] na mita 5891 mwaka [[2014]].<ref name="Digital"/>

Muundo wa ndani wa Kilimanjaro haujulikani sana kwa sababu hadi sasa haujatokea [[mmomonyoko]] mkubwa unaoweza kufunua ndani yake.<ref name="Preliminary">{{cite journal | url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4713936&fileId=S0016756800066590 | title=Preliminary Notes on the Geology of Kilimanjaro | author=W. H. Wilcockson | journal=Geological Magazine | year=1956 | volume=93 | issue=3 | pages=218–228 | doi=10.1017/S0016756800066590}}</ref>

===Shira===
Kilele cha kale zaidi ni Shira iliyoanza kutema moto takriban miaka milioni  2.5 iliyopita ikaacha miaka milioni 1.9 iliyopita. Wakati ule upande wa kaskazini wa mzingo wa kasoko ulipinduka. <ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/>  Leo hii Shira ina tambarare pana kwenye kilele chake kwenye kimo cha mita 3800; inawezekana hii kiasili ilikuwa [[kaldera]] iliyojaa lava. Mabaki ya mzingo wa kaldera yamepungua sana kutokana na mmomonyoko. Kabla ya kutoa moto na kutokea kwa mmomonyoko kimo cha Shira kilikuwa kati ya mita 4,900 na 5,200. Mata yake ni hasa lava pamoja na kiasi cha [[piroklasti]]. <ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/><ref name="Preliminary"/><ref name="JohnBarryDawson">{{cite book | author=John Barry Dawson | title=The Gregory Rift Valley and Neogene-recent Volcanoes of Northern Tanzania | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Om2oMjXK3R4C&pg=PA56|year=2008|publisher=Geological Society of London | isbn=978-1-86239-267-0|page=56}}</ref>

===Mawenzi===
Mawenzi na Kibo zilianza kulipuka (kutoa moto) takriban miaka milioni iliyopita.<ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/> Zimetengwa na tambarare ( "Saddle Plateau") kwenye kimo cha mita 4400.<ref name="AnAscentOfKilimanjaro">{{cite journal | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1780513?seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents | title=An Ascent of Kilimanjaro | author=C. Gillman | journal=The Geographical Journal | year=1923 | volume=61 | issue=1 | doi=10.2307/1780513 | registration=yes | jstor=10.2307/1780513 | pages=1–21}}</ref>{{rp|3}}

Miamba ya kijana kwenye Mawenzi ilitokea miaka 448,000 iliyopita. <ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/> Mawenzi huwa na [[mgongo]] wenye [[umbo]] la [[kiatu]] cha [[farasi]] mwenye [[ncha]] kali na kufunguka upande wa kaskazini-magharibi. Mgongo unakatwa na [[Bonde|mabonde]] kadhaa na upande wa mashariki wa mlima umepungua kutokana na mmomonyoko. Mawenzi huwa na kilele cha pili kinachojulikana kwa jina la “Neumann Tower” chenye mita 4425.<ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/><ref name="Preliminary"/><ref name="JohnBarryDawson"/>

===Kibo===
Kibo ni [[pia]] ya kivolkeno yenye kimo kirefu ikiwa na [[upana]] wa kilomita 15 kwenye "Saddle Plateau". Ililipuka mara ya mwisho miaka 150,000 na 200,000 iliyopita na [[mlipuko wa volkeno|mlipuko]] huo ulifanya kasoko kwenye kilele cha Kibo cha sasa. Hadi leo gesi inatoka kwenye [[Shimo|mashimo]] ardhini.<ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/><ref name="Preliminary"/><ref name="JohnBarryDawson"/> Kibo huwa na pia kwenye kilele chake chenye [[umbo]] kamili. Kuna [[kaldera]] yenye upana wa kilomita 2.5 na ndani yake pia iko kasoko ya Reusch. Jina hilo lilitolewa na [[serikali]] ya [[Tanganyika]] mwaka [[1954]] kwa heshima ya Mjerumani [[Gustav Otto Richard Reusch]] alipopanda mlima mara ya 25. <ref>{{cite web | url=http://cvgs.cu-portland.edu/history/biographies/bio.cfm?id=529 | title=Gustav Otto Richard Reusch | publisher=The Center for Volga German Studies at Concordia University | work=Biographies | accessdate=16 July 2015 | archivedate=2015-10-24 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024111716/http://cvgs.cu-portland.edu/history/biographies/bio.cfm?id=529 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Richard Leider | title=The Power of Purpose: Find Meaning, Live Longer, Better | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_s4B9LI7BX0C&pg=PA12 | date=10 May 2010 | publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers|isbn=978-1-60509-527-1 | page=12}}</ref> Ndani ya kasoko ya Reusch kuna shimo refu linalojulikana kwa jina la “ash pit” (shimo la majivu).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/kilimanjaro | title=Kilimanjaro | publisher=Oregon State University | work=Volcano World | accessdate=16 July 2015}}</ref> Wakati wa mlipuko wa mwisho uliotokea miaka 100,000 iliyopita sehemu za mzingo wa kasoko ziliporomoka na kuacha pengo kubwa. <ref>{{cite book | author=Alex Stewart | title=Kilimanjaro: A Complete Trekker's Guide: Preparations, practicalities and trekking routes to the 'Roof of Africa' | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=28N6F2wBSM8C&pg=PA97 | date=23 April 2012 | publisher=Cicerone Press Limited | isbn=978-1-84965-622-1 | page=100}}</ref>

Kibo huwa na pia za kando zaidi ya 250 ambazo ni mashimo ambako gesi, [[zaha]] na [[piroklasti]] zilitoka kwenye pande za mlima wakati wa kuwa [[volkeno hai]]. Zilitokea miaka 150,000 hadi 200,000 iliyopita <ref name="NonnottePhilippe"/>. Zinapatikana hadi [[Ziwa Chala]] na [[Taita-Taveta County|Taveta]] upande wa kusini-mashariki na hadi [[Lengurumani]] upande wa kaskazini-magharibi. Zaha iliyotoka katika pia hizo za kando ilifunika sehemu kubwa ya pande za mlima.

[[Wamaasai]] wana kumbukumbu ya kuwa [[Ziwa Chala]] upande wa mashariki wa Kibo lilikuwa mahali pa [[kijiji]] kimoja kilichoharibika na mlipuko wa volkeno.

[[Maji]] yatoka mlimani kwa njia ya [[mito]] na [[kijito|vijito]] hasa upande wa kusini unaopokea [[mvua]] zaidi hasa juu ya mita 1200. Chini ya kimo hicho maji kwenye [[mito]] inapungua kutokana na mvukizo na matumizi ya [[binadamu]]. Mito ya [[Lumi (mto) |Lumi]] na [[Pangani (mto)|Pangani]] inabeba maji ya Kilimanjaro kuelekea mashariki na kusini. <ref>{{cite book | author=William Dubois Newmark | title=The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0Is9h1vm90AC&pg=PA22 | year=1991 | publisher=IUCN | isbn=978-2-8317-0070-0 | pages=105–106}}</ref>

[[File:Mount Kilimanjaro peeking through the clouds.jpg|thumb|Mlima Kilimanjaro ukitokea kati ya mawingu.]]

==Tabianchi==
[[Tabianchi]] ya Kilimanjaro inaathiriwa na kimo cha mlima kinachoruhusu kufika kwa [[upepo]] kutoka [[bahari]] wenye [[unyevu]] mwingi na wakati mmoja pia upepo za juu sana. Tabia nyingine ni hali yake ya kuwa mlima wa juu sana peke yake bila jirani ya karibu sana. Mlima huwa na mfumo wa upepo ambako [[mchana]] upepo unaelekea juu na wakati wa [[usiku]] kuna upepo unaotelemka kutoka juu. Hii inatokea zaidi upande wa kusini kuliko upande wa kaskazini kwa sababu tako la mlima ni pana zaidi upande wa kusini na mitelemko yake inaelekea zaidi hivyo kuathiri tabianchi zaidi. <ref name="AnAscentOfKilimanjaro"/>.

Kilimanjaro huwa na [[majira]] mawili ya mvua, moja ya [[Machi]] hadi [[Mei]] na nyingine mnamo mwezi wa [[Novemba]]. Mitelemko ya kaskazini hupokea mvua chache kulingana na mitelemko ya kusini.<ref name="PlantEcology"/> 

Sehemu za chini za mtelemko wa kusini hupokea [[milimita]] za [[mvua]] 800 – 900 kwa mwaka. Kiwango hiki kinaongezeka kwa milimita 1,500 hadi 2,000 kwenye kimo cha mita 1,500 na hadi juu ya milimita 3,000 kwenye ukanda wa msitu kwa mita 2,000 hadi 2,300. Juu zaidi [[usimbishaji]] unapungua tena hadi milimita 200.<ref name="PlantEcology2">{{cite journal | url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hemp_Andreas/publication/227232425_Introduced_plants_on_Kilimanjaro_tourism_and_its_impact/links/0a85e53be4703e41aa000000.pdf | title=Introduced plants on Kilimanjaro: tourism and its impact | author=Andreas Hemp | journal=Plant Ecology | year=2007 | volume=197 | issue=1 | pages=17–29 | doi=10.1007/s11258-007-9356-z}}</ref>{{rp|18}}

[[Halijoto]] kwenye kilele ina wastani ya [[sentigredi]] -7 yaani [[jalidi]]. Halijoto juu ya ngao ya [[barafu]] upande wa kaskazini wakati wa usiku huwa na wastani wa sentigredi -9 na wakati wa mchana -4. Viwango vya chini vya -15 hadi -27 vimepimiwa pia.<ref name="SinghSingh2011">{{cite book | author1=Vijay P. Singh | author2=Pratap Singh | author3=Umesh K. Haritashya | title=Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mKKtQR4T-1MC&pg=PA673 | date=1 July 2011 | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | isbn=978-90-481-2641-5}}</ref>{{rp|674}}

[[Usimbishaji]] wa theluji unaweza kutokea wakati wowote lakini kwa kawaida hutokea Zaidi wakati wa majira ya mvua. (Novemba–Desemba na Machi–Mei).<ref name="SinghSingh2011"/>{{rp|673}} Usimbishaji wote kwenye kilele ni hasa theluji au mchnganyiko wa tehluji na mvua kwenye kiwango cha milimita 250 hadi 500 kwa mwaka na kuvukiza haraka.<ref name="TraceElements"/>

==Barafu na barafuto==
[[File:Snow and Ice on Kilimanjaro-1993.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Theluji]] na barafu katika kilele cha mlima Kilimanjaro, 1993.]]
Mlima Kilimanjaro hujulikana kuwa kuwa ni mlima wa Afrika mwenye kofia ya [[barafu]] ya kudumu. Pamoja na Kilimanjaro kuna sehemu mbili nyingine tu barani Afrika, ni [[Ruwenzori]] na [[Mlima Kenya]]. Lakini kiasi cha barafu imepungua kwa kipindi cha zaidi ya miaka 100. Mwingereza  P.C. Spink  aliona mwaka 1944 ya kwamba barafu ilipungua sana kulingana na taarifa aliyojua kutoka mpandaji wa kwanza Hans Meyer. Baina 1912 eneo la ngao ya barafu limepungua kutoka [[kilomita za mraba]] 12 hadi 1.85 km² kwenye mwaka 2009. Hii inalingana na kupunguzwa [[asilimia]] 85%. Sababu kuu ya mabadiliko haya ni kupungukiwa kwa kiwango cha [[usimbishaji]] katika mazingira ya mlima tangu mwisho wa karne ya 19. 

Maana Kilimanjaro ni mlima wa juu vile ya kwamba mvua wote (pamoja na ukungu na usimbishaji mwingine) unaofika kwenye kilele chake utaganda na kuwa theluji. Theluji inayokaa muda mrefu tena katika ganda nene itakuwa barafu.  Lakini wakati uleule mishale ya jua zinasababisha kupotea kwa theluji na barafu kwa njia ya [[uvukizaji]]. Kwa jumla kuongezeka au kupungukiwa kwa barafu kwenye kimo hiki ni  swali la kiasi cha mvua na usimbishaji  mwingine zinazofika hapa. 

Leo hii kuna barafuto kwenye Kibo pekee pamoja na mabaki ya ngao ya barafu kwenye tambarare ya kilele na kwenye mitelemko ya Kibo. <ref>Brian Vastag: ''The melting snows of Kilimanjaro.'' In: ''[[Nature]].'' 2009, {{DOI|10.1038/news.2009.1055}}.</ref><ref>Georg Kaser, Douglas R. Hardy u.&nbsp;a.: ''Modern glacier retreat on Kilimanjaro as evidence of climate change: observations and facts.'' In: ''International Journal of Climatology.'' 24, 2004, S.&nbsp;329, {{DOI|10.1002/joc.1008}}.</ref><ref>Thomas Mölg: ''Solar-radiation-maintained glacier recession on Kilimanjaro drawn from combined ice-radiation geometry modeling.'' In: ''[[Journal of Geophysical Research]].'' 108, 2003, {{DOI|10.1029/2003JD003546}}.</ref><ref>Thomas Mölg: ''Ablation and associated energy balance of a horizontal glacier surface on Kilimanjaro.'' In: ''Journal of Geophysical Research.'' 109, 2004, {{DOI|10.1029/2003JD004338}}.</ref><ref>N. J. Cullen, P. Sirguey, T. Mölg, G. Kaser, M. Winkler, S. J. Fitzsimons: ''A century of ice retreat on Kilimanjaro: the mapping reloaded.'' The Cryosphere Discuss., 2012, 6, 4233-4265, {{doi|10.5194/tcd-6-4233-2012}}.</ref>
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1788958?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Hii ngao ya barafu bado iko kwa sababu Kilimanjaro ni mlima usio na vilele vikali unaofika juu ya kimo cha mstari wa jeledi. Kasoko ya Kibo imepita na kukata ngao hiyo.
<ref name="AnAscentOfKilimanjaro"/>{{rp|5}} Siku hizi hakuna miendo ya maana inayoonekana kwenye barafuto za kilele kwa sababu unene wao imepungua mno..<ref name="TraceElements"/>
Utafiti wa kijiolojia umeonyesha ya kwamba kulikuwa na vipindi vitano vya upanuzi wa barafuto katika miaka 500,000 iliyopita vilivyofuatwa na vipindi vya kupungua. <ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bryan_Mark/publication/227643102_Quaternary_glaciation_in_Africa_key_chronologies_and_climatic_implications/links/00b7d52d451e477c9b000000.pdf | title=Quaternary glaciation in Africa: Key chronologies and climatic implications | author=Bryan G. Mark and Henry A. Osmaston | journal=Journal of Quaternary Science | year=2008 | volume=23 | pages=589–608 | doi=10.1002/jqs.1222}}</ref>

Ngao ya barafu mfululizo ilifunika mlima wote hadi kimo cha mita 3,200 miaka 24,000 – 25,000 iliyopita wakati [[barafuto]] kote duniani zilienea sana. <ref name="Kaser"/><ref name="Glaciers of Middle East"/> Kuna dalili ya kwamba barafu yote mlimani iliwahi kupotea kabisa takriban miaka 11,500 iliyopita kutokana na ukame dunaini wakati ule.<ref name="TraceElements">{{cite journal | url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Natalie_Kehrwald/publication/261331494_Deglaciated_areas_of_Kilimanjaro_as_a_source_of_volcanic_trace_elements_deposited_on_the_ice_cap_during_the_late_Holocene/links/0f317533e6b1d43308000000.pdf | title=Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene | author=P. Gabrielli, D. R. Hardy, N. Kehrwald, M. Davis, G. Cozzi, C. Turetta, C. Barbante, L. G. Thompson | journal=Quaternary Science Reviews | year=2014 | volume=93 | issue=1 | pages=1–10 | doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.007}}</ref>
Kuongezeka kwa usimbishaji wakati wa [[Holoseni]] (miaka 11,500 iliyopita) kumeruhusu kurudi kwa barafu mlimani. <ref name="TraceElements"/>  barafuto ziliweza kudumisha kipindi cha ukame miaka 4,000 iliyopita. <ref name="TraceElements"/><ref name="unabated">{{cite journal | author=L. G. Thompson, H. H. Brecher, E. Mosley-Thompson, D. R. Hardy, B. G. Mark | title=Glacier loss on Kilimanjaro continues unabated | journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume=106 | issue=47 | pages=19770–5 | year=2009 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0906029106 | url=http://www.pnas.org/content/106/47/19770.full | access-date=2016-04-01 | archive-date=2021-02-08 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208123238/https://www.pnas.org/content/106/47/19770.full | dead-url=yes }}</ref>

Wakati wa kutembelewa mara ya kwanza katika miaka ya 1880, kilele cha Kibo kilifunikwa kabisa kwa ngao ya barafu yenye eneo la kilomita za mraba 20 hivi na mikondo ya [[barafuto]] iliendelea wenye mitelemko ya kando.  Isipokuwa pia ya kati, kaldera yote ilifunikwa na barafu.<ref name="Kaser"/><ref name="Glaciers of Middle East">{{cite web | last=Young | first=James A. T. | title=Glaciers of the Middle East and Africa | url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386g/africa.pdf | work=U.S. Geological Professional Survey | publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior | pages=G61, G58, G59 G62 | accessdate=16 August 2012}}</ref>
[[File:Kilimanjaro-1938-uwm.png|thumb|300px|Kilele cha Kibo kilivyoonekana kutoka angani mwaka 1938.]]
Imetazamiwa ya kwamba barafuto kwenye mitelemko ilirudi nyuma haraka kuanzia 1912 hadi 1953, na polepole zaidi tangu wakati ule. Inaendelea kupungua nah ii inaonyesha ya kwamba bado hakuna uwiano kati ya kiasi cha mvua kinachofika kwenye kilele na uvukizaji nah ii inaonyesha mabadiliko ya tabianachi yanayoendelea. <ref name="Kaser"/>

Pamoja na kufunika eneo dogo zaidi, yaani kujikaza,  barafuto pia zimepungua unene kutokana na kuyeyuka na uvukizaji. <ref name="unabated"/><ref name="TraceElements"/> Mabadiliko haya kwenye barafuto za Kilimanjaro zinalingana na mabadiliko yanayoonekana kwenye barafuto kote duniani. <ref name="unabated"/> At the current rate, most of the ice on Kilimanjaro will disappear by 2040 and "it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060".{{rp|430}}

Kama barafu juu ya Kilimanjaro ingepotea kabisa hii isingekuwa tatizo kubwa kwa maji yanayopatikana katika maeneo yanayozunguka mlima. Kiasi cha barafu juu ya mlima ni kidogo sana kuliko kiasi cha maji yanayohifadhiwa na misitu kwenye mitelemko ya mlima chini zaidi. Misitu hii ni chanzo cha maji yanayotiririke chini katika mito na vijito vya mlima mkubwa.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://lindseynicholson.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Moelg-et-al.-2013.pdf | title=East African glacier loss and climate change: Corrections to the UNEP article ‘‘Africa without ice and snow’’ | author=Georg Kaser, Thomas Mölg, Nicolas J. Cullen, Douglas R. Hardy, Michael Winkler, Rainer Prinz, and Lindsey Nicholson | volume=6 | pages=1–6}}</ref>

==Uoto==
Kuna [[misitu]] asilia zinazofunika takriban kilomita ya mraba 1,000 kwenze mlima<ref name="PlantEcology">{{cite journal | url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hemp_Andreas/publication/227311322_Continuum_or_zonation_Altitudinal_gradients_in_the_forest_vegetation_of_Mt._Kilimanjaro/links/543b57b60cf24a6ddb976f7e.pdf | title=Continuum or zonation? Altitudinal gradients in the forest vegetation of Mt. Kilimanjaro | author=Andreas Hemp | journal=Plant Ecology | year=2006 | volume=184 | issue=1 | pages=27–42 | doi=10.1007/s11258-005-9049-4}}</ref> .

Sehemu ya chini hulimwa kwa kupanda [[mahindi]], [[maharagwe]] na  [[alizeti]], pia [[ngano]] upande wa magharibi.  Kuna mabaki ya uoto wa [[savana]] ya awali yenye miti kama ''[[Acacia]]'', ''[[Combretum]]'', ''[[Terminalia]]'' na ''[[Grewia]]''.
Kuanzia kimo cha mita 1000 hadi mita 1800 kuna kilimo cha kahawa kwa namna ya kidesturi ya "[[Wachaga]]  inayopanda miti na mazao  kwa pamoja.  Uoto asilia umebaki pekee katika mabonde majkali yasiyoweza kutumiwa kwa kilimo <ref name="MaundiCrater">{{cite journal | url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379112000637 | title=Vegetation, climate and fire-dynamics in East Africa inferred from the Maundi crater pollen record from Mt Kilimanjaro during the last glacial–interglacial cycle | author=Lisa Schüler, Andreas Hemp, Wolfgang Zech, Hermann Behling | journal=Quaternary Science Reviews | year=2012 | volume=39 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.02.003 | via=ScienceDirect}}</ref>  na hapa ni tofauti na uoto kwenye maeneo ya juu zaidi.

Kuanzia kimo cha mita 1000 hadi mita 1800 kuna kilimo cha kahawa kwa namna ya kidesturi ya "[[Wachaga]]  inayopanda miti na mazao  kwa pamoja.  Uoto asilia umebaki pekee katika mabonde majkali yasiyoweza kutumiwa kwa kilimo <ref name="MaundiCrater">{{cite journal | url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379112000637 | title=Vegetation, climate and fire-dynamics in East Africa inferred from the Maundi crater pollen record from Mt Kilimanjaro during the last glacial–interglacial cycle | author=Lisa Schüler, Andreas Hemp, Wolfgang Zech, Hermann Behling | journal=Quaternary Science Reviews | year=2012 | volume=39 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.02.003 | via=ScienceDirect}}</ref>  na hapa ni tofauti na uoto kwenye maeneo ya juu Zaidi.

Kwenye mitelemko ya kusini penye mvua nyingi kuna misitu ya mvua yenye miti aina ya  ''[[Ocotea usambarensis]]'' pamoja na [[kangaga]] na [[epipythi]]. 
Juu zaidi penye ukungu wa kudumu kuna ''[[Podocarpus latifolius]]'', ''[[Hagenia abyssinica]]'' na  ''[[Erica excelsa]]'' pamoja na  [[kuvumwani]]. 

Upande wa kaskazini ulio kavu zaidi pana misitu ya [[mizeituni]],  ''[[Croton (plant)|Croton]]''-''[[Mlungu-mbago]]'' (Calodendrum), ''[[Cassipourea]]'' (Mugome na Msikundazi) na ''[[Juniperus]]'' (Mtarakwa) kadri kimo kinaongezeka. 

Juu zaidi kati ya mita 3,100 na 3,900 hufuata kanda la vichaka vya ''[[Erica]]'' ([[mdamba]]) na juu yake  kunamajanimajani tu kama ''[[Helichrysum]]'' hadi mita 4500.<ref name="PlantEcology2"/><ref>{{cite book | author1=L. A. Bruijnzeel | author2=F. N. Scatena | author3=L. S. Hamilton | title=Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N6FkwMnSX8EC&pg=PA134 | date=6 January 2011 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-49455-7 | pages=136}}</ref> 

Utafiti kwenye kasoko ya Maundi kwenye kimo cha mita 2780 umeonyesha ya kwamba uoto wa Kilimanjaro ulibadilika katika mwendo wa karne na milenia. Wakati wa baridi kwenye enzi ya barafu miaka 42,000 – 30,000 iliyopita misitu ilishuka chini na kanda la mdamba lilitokea takriban mita 1,500 chini ya hali yake ya sasa..<ref name="MaundiCrater"/>

==Wanyama==
Hakuna wanyama wakubwa wengi waliobaki mlimani. Wanapatikana hasa kwenye misitu na sehemu za chini mlimani. [[Tembo]] na [[nyati wa Afrika|nyati]] wanaweza kuwa na hatari kwa watalii wanaopanda mlima na pia kwa wakulima.  [[Pongo]], [[vinyonga]], [[digidigi]], [[Paa (Bovidae)|paa]], [[Nguchiro]], nyani mbalimbali kama [[mbega]], [[komba]], [[chui]],  [[Chozi (ndege)|chozi]] na  [[ngiri]] wametazamiwa pia. [[Punda milia]] na  [[fisi]] wanapatikana mara chache kweye tambarare juu ya Shira.<ref>{{cite book | author=Cameron M. Burns | title=Kilimanjaro & East Africa: A Climbing and Trekking Guide | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bwZfkrl2ygQC&pg=PA7 | year=2006 | publisher=The Mountaineers Books | isbn=978-0-89886-604-9 | page=50}}</ref>

Kuna spishi chache zinazopatikana Kilimanjaro pekee hizi ni pamoja na “[[Kirukanjia (mamalia)|kirukanjia]] wa Kilimanjaro”<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/5577/0 | title=Crocidura monax | publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources | work=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | accessdate=August 15, 2015 | archivedate=2016-04-24 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424202247/http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/5577/0 }}</ref> na spishi ya kinyonga kinachoitwa [[Kinyongia tavetana]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Kinyongia&species=tavetana | title=Kinyongia tavetana (STEINDACHNER, 1891) | publisher=Zoological Museum Hamburg | work=The Reptile Database | accessdate=15 August 2015}}</ref>

==Tazama pia==
* [[Orodha ya volkeno nchini Tanzania]]
* [[Orodha ya milima ya Tanzania]]
* [[Orodha ya milima ya Afrika]]
* [[Orodha ya milima]]
{{Vilele saba vya mabara}}

==Marejeo==
<references/>

==Viungo vya nje==
{{commons|Category:Kilimanjaro}}
* [http:////www.tanzaniaparks.com/kili.html/ Mount Kilimanjaro National Park]
* [http:////www.easytravelgear.com/hiking-in-africa/ Mount Kilimanjaro National Park]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3054 NASA Earth Explorer page]
* [http://www.mountain-forecast.com/peaks/Mount-Kilimanjaro/forecasts/5963 Weather forecase for Mount Kilimanjaro (19,565 feet)]
* [http://www.kilimanjaro.cc/glacial-recession.htm Glacial Recession on Kilimanjaro (pictures of southern icefields)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.kilimanjaro.cc/glacial-recession.htm |date=20110215100701 }}
* [http://www.kilicam.com Mount Kilimanjaro live webcam]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141107022451/http://www.ewpnet.com/kilimanjaro/flora/index.htm Kilimanjaro flora picture gallery]
* [http://collections.lib.uwm.edu/cdm/search/collection/agsafrica/searchterm/Kilimanjaro%20%28mountain%29/field/all/mode/exact/conn/and/cosuppress/ Aerial photographs of Mount Kilimanjaro, 1937-38]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7919100.stm How hard is it to climb Mount Kilimanjaro?]
*[http://www.cepf.net/Documents/Final_LovettRuffoGereau_FieldGuide.pdf Field Guide to the Moist Forest Trees of Tanzania] {{Wayback|url=http://www.cepf.net/Documents/Final_LovettRuffoGereau_FieldGuide.pdf |date=20100621062907 }} Jon C. Lovett, Chris K. Ruffo & Roy E. Gereau, Miti ya milima ya Tanzania

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kilimanjaro}}

[[Jamii:Milima ya Tanzania]]
[[Jamii:Milima ya Afrika]]
[[Jamii:Volkeno za Afrika]]
[[Jamii:Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro]]
[[Jamii:Volkeno za Tanzania]]
[[Jamii:Afrocine 2019-Tanzania]]